Учебно-методическое пособие для поступающих в аспирантуру тгамэуп экономических, социологических и юридических специальностей

ТЮМЕНСКАЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ МИРОВОЙ ЭКОНОМИКИ, УПРАВЛЕНИЯ И ПРАВА

КАФЕДРА ИНОСТРАННЫХ ЯЗЫКОВ

ОДОБРЕНО УТВЕРЖДАЮ

Протокол заседания кафедры Проректор по учебной работе №9 от 19.06.2008 г. «_____»__________2008 г.

Зав. кафедрой ин. яз. ___________ Кольцова Т.А

____________ Шиликов С.И

ОДОБРЕНО

Протокол заседания

Ученого совета

№ ____ от _______ 2008 г.

С.И. Шиликов

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Учебно-методическое пособие для поступающих в аспирантуру ТГАМЭУП экономических, социологических и юридических специальностей

г. Тюмень, 2008 г.

ББК

Английский язык. Учебно-методическое пособие для поступающих в аспирантуру ТГАМЭУП экономических, социологических и юридических специальностей./Шиликов С.И. — Тюмень: ТГАМЭУП, 2008. 75 с.

Данные учебно-методические материалы предназначены для поступающих в аспирантуру ТГАМЭУП по экономическим, социологическим и юридическим направлениям.

Целью этих материалов является развитие практических навыков чтения и перевода специальной литературы, поскольку чтение — это ключевой навык, необходимый как для общего образования, так и дальнейшего прогресса в изучении иностранного языка.

Письмо рассматривается как средство изучения и закрепления грамматических конструкций, новой лексики, а также как отдельный навык, который следует развивать как составную часть общего образования поступающих в аспирантуру.

В программе и в структуре экзаменационного билета для поступающих в аспирантуру соблюдается преемственность вузовской программы и экзаменационных требований.

Одобрено на заседании кафедры иностранных языков № от «9» 19 июня 2008 г., печатается по решению Учебно-методического совета, протокол заседания УМС № ___ от _______.

Рецензенты:

Кононова Т.М.,
д. соц. н, доцент, зав. каф. ин. яз. Тюменской государственной академии искусств и культуры

Чуйкова Н.Б.,
к. соц. н., доцент Тюменской государственной академии мировой экономики, управления и права

Автор-составитель: к. пед. н, доцент, зав. каф. ин. яз. ТГАМЭУП Шиликов С.И.

© ТГАМЭУП, 2008

© С.И. Шиликов, 2008

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

Введение……………………………………………………………………………...3

Раздел 1

Английский язык (для экономистов и социологов) ………………………………6

Text l New York……………………………………………………………………..6

Text 2 Washington…………………………………………………………………….7

Text 3 Chicago………………………………………………………………………..8

Text 4 Bristol………………………………………………………………………….9

Text 5 Great Towns, Cities…………………………………………………………..10

Text 6 Corporation…………………………………………………………………...11

Text 7 UNCTAD VII and After……………………………………………………...12

Text 8 Impact of Trade Restrictions………………………………………………….13

Text 9 The Economy of Great Britain………………………………………………..15

Text 10 The Trade of Great Britain………………………………………………….16

Text 11 Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & Me Cloy……………………………………….17

Text 12 Milbank, Tweed, Hadley and Me Cloy……………………………………..19

Text 13 Milbank……………………………………………………………………...20

Text 14 Milbank, Tweed. Hadley & Me Cloy……………………………………….22

Text 15 Milbank……………………………………………………………………...23

Text 16 Scientific Management……………………………………………………...25

Text 17 Managing the Future………………………………………………………..26

Text 18 Faberge Jewelry: A Long Russian History………………………………….27

Text 19 Nestle Expands Globally……………………………………………………28

Text 20 Britain's Banking and Financial Institutions………………………………...29

Text 21 London………………………………………………………………………29

Text 22 Benjamin Franklin…….…………………………………………………….30

Text 23 Winston Churchill…………………………………………………………...31

Text 24 World Domination ……………………………………………………...32

Text 25 The Wheels of Commerce…………………………………………………..33

Text 26 Beaches and Tea…………………………………………………………….33

Text 27 Australia…………………………………………………………………….34

Text 28 Developing in English………………………………………………………35

Text 29 Banking and Finance………………………………………………………..35

Text 30 What is Accounting…………………………………………………………38

Text 31 The Development of Accounting Thought………………………………….39

Раздел 2

Английский язык (для юристов)

Text 1 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland……………….40

Text 2 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland………………...41

Text 3 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland………………..42

Text 4 The European Community……………………………………………………42

Text 5 Overseas Relations of Great Britain The Commonwealth……………………43

Text 6 The United States of America………………………………………………...44

Text 7 The United States of America………………………………………………...45

Text 8 The United States of America………………………………………………...47

Text 9 The United States of America………………………………………………..48

Text 10 The United States of America………………………………………………49

Text 11 Immigration Laws in the USA………………………………………………51

Text 12 Immigration Laws in the USA………………………………………………52

Text 13 Crime in the USA…………………………………………………………...54

Text 14 Crimes in the USA ……………………………………………………...55

Text 15 The Civil Rights……………………………………………………………..56

Text 16 International Court of Justice………………………………………………..58

Text 17 European Legislation………………………………………………………..59

Text 18 The Federal Judiciary in the U.S ………………………………………..60

Text 19 Justice and Law in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and

Northern Ireland…………………………………………………………………….61

Text 20 Development of English Law in Australia and New Zealand…….………..62

Text 21 Voting and Government in Great Britain……………………………………64

Text 22 Interpol (International Criminal Police Organization) ………………………64

Text 23 Benjamin Franklin…………………………………………………………..65

Text 24 Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809) …………………………………………..…66

Text 25 Franklin D.Roosevelt (1933-1945) ………………………………………...66

Text 26 John F.Kennedy (1961-1963) Comment on the following quotations……...67

Text 27 My Meetings with General Grant President' day…………………………...68

Text 28 Winston Churchill…………………………………………………………...71

Text 29 British Police System………………………………………………………..72

Text 30 English Criminal Law………………………………………………………73

Введение

Современный период развития характеризуется все более тесным взаимодействием народов мира в науке, экономике, политике, культуре. Это взаимодействие осуществляется традиционно таким общим языком международной коммуникации, как английским. Овладение им как средством общения стало осознанной жизненно важной необходимостью для многих людей.

Как показывает многолетний опыт работы преподавателей по методу активизации резервных возможностей личности, курс обучения иностранным языкам с его научнообоснованной методической и лингво-психологической организацией может достаточно оперативно обеспечить необходимый для общения уровень владения иностранным языком, что является очень важным при организации групп по иностранным языкам для поступающих в аспирантуру.

Поскольку лица, поступающие в аспирантуру ТГАМЭУП, имеют значительный перерыв в занятиях и уровень их подготовки по иностранному языку различен, данная программа рекомендует решать конкретные учебные задачи формирования навыков и умений чтения литературы по специальности с учетом индивидуального подхода к поступающему с различным уровнем языковой подготовки.

В качестве вступительного экзамена по иностранному языку поступающий в аспирантуру сдает тот иностранный язык, который он изучал в вузе.

Цели и задачи обучения

Цель обучения иностранному языку для поступления в аспирантуру — сформировать практическое владение иностранным языком как вторичным средством общения в сфере профессиональной научной деятельности. Это предполагает, прежде всего, формирование умения читать материал по специальности с целью извлечения информации из иноязычных источников с помощью словаря, тексты страноведческого, общенаучного характера и тематически связанные с будущими исследованиями.

Умение читать без словаря тексты, содержащие лексику по пройденной тематике и ситуациям общения, а также тексты, смысловая ситуация которых может служить предметом беседы, высказываний и обсуждения на иностранном или родном языках.

Письмо:

· умение правильно писать слова и словосочетания, входящие в лексический минимум;

· умение с помощью словаря изложить в письменной форме содержание текста;

Устная речь:

· умение участвовать в несложной беседе на темы повседневной жизни, учебы в аспирантуре, а также знание речевого этикета;

· умение выражать свои мысли в устной форме по пройденной тематике с использованием активных грамматических правил, а также по темам специальности в рамках определенной лексики;

· понимать на слух речь, в том числе фонозаписи, содержащие усвоенный языковой материал; допускается использование незнакомой лексики, значение и смысл которой раскрывается на основе умения пользоваться языковой и лексической догадкой;

· иметь представление о культурных традициях и правилах речевого этикета в странах изучаемого языка.

Письмо и учебный перевод в процессе обучения рассматриваются не как цель, а как средство обучения, входящее в систему упражнений при объяснении, закреплении и контроле языкового материала.

При обучении иностранному языку реализуются общеобразовательные и воспитательные задачи, указанные в государственных образовательных стандартах высшего профессионального образования по дисциплине «Иностранный язык».

Организация учебной деятельности

При обучении чтению применяются информационно-ознакомительные, тренировочные и обобщающе-контрольные группы учебных действий, которые сменяют друг друга в процессе обучения.

При обучении устной речи циклы занятий включают разные речевые действия: имитативно-воспроизводящие, конструктивные, продуктивные и т.д.

Речевой материал для обучения устной речи представляет собой образцы диалогов, деловых бесед, монологических высказываний полилогов (участников бесед, собеседований).

Содержание текста для чтения отражает учебные ситуации и тематику, относящуюся к описанию страноведческой и научной деятельности.

Тексты по языковому содержанию на иностранном языке отбираются так, чтобы обеспечить решение учебной задачи при чтении, в устном общении в заданной ситуации.

Предусматривается ознакомление с особенностями делового и научного стиля языка в рамках специальности при переводе текстов на родной язык.

Письменные тексты используются лишь как зрительная опора, общение происходит на базе устной речи. Материал охватывает изученные тексты, речевые образцы, письменные упражнения, образцы деловых писем и т.д.

Минимум грамматического материала
английского языка

Артикль как признак существительного. Формальные признаки существительного, множественное число существительных. Притяжательный падеж существительного. Местоимение. Неопределенные местоимения some, any, no и их производные. Употребление степени сравнения прилагательных и наречий. Числительные (количественные и порядковые). Оборот there is (are). Глаголы в Present, Past, Future Indefinite (Simple), Present, Past Perfect Continuous. Действительный и страдательный залоги. Модальные глаголы. Различные функции глаголов to be, to have. Согласование времен. Косвенная речь. Употребление настоящего времени в значении будущего в придаточном обстоятельственном предложении. Употребление повелительного и сослагательного наклонений. Неличные формы глаголов Infinitive, Gerund, Participle. Функциональные разграничения омонимии, функции one, сложных инфинитивных форм и их соотнесение с формами сказуемого, инфинитива в простой и перфектной формах после модальных глаголов. Структура простого, распространенного и сложного предложения. Сведения о бессоюзном придаточном предложении, об условных предложениях изъявительного и сослагательного наклонений.

Словообразовательный минимум дается в объеме, предусмотренном в курсе иностранного языка.

Структура вступительного экзамена в аспирантуру

1. Письменный перевод со словарем текста по специальности объемом 1800 печатных знаков за 60 минут.

2. Изучающее чтение оригинального текста по специальности. Объем 2000–2500 печатных знаков. Время выполнения работы – 45–60 минут. Форма проверки: передача извлеченной информации осуществляется на иностранном языке.

3. Беседа о специальности.

Рекомендуемые учебники и учебные пособия

М.Г. Рубцова
«Полный курс английского языка», учебник-самоучитель, 2002 год.

О. Ивицкая, О. Самарова, М. Флетчер
“Hello, Britain!” Интенсивный курс для продолжающих, 1993 г.

Natalia Tokareva, Victor Peppard
“What it is like in the USA”.

Берман
KM
.
Грамматика английского языка — M.: Выс­шая школа, 1994.

Ковтун Л.Г.,
Образцова Н.А., Куприкова Т.С., Матявина М.Ф. Учебник английского языка “Mastering, Banking English”. — М.: НИП-2Р, 1997.

Станкеева Е.Г.
Английский язык для деловых людей: Пособие по корреспонденции — М.: Высшая школа, 1991.

Раздел
I

Английский язык (для экономистов и социологов)

Text 1

I. Прочтите и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 3, 4, 5.

Пояснения к тексту:

1.
Empire State Building — Эмпайр Стейт Билдинг.

2. East River — Ист-Ривер (узкий пролив, отделяющий остров Манхэттен от острова Лонг-Айленд).

3. First Avenue — Первая авеню.

New York

1. New York is the largest city of the USA. It is a national leader in business, finance, manufacturing, communications, service industries, fashion and arts.

2. As you walk about New York, you will get much information about history, geography and literature.

3. The heart of the city is Manhattan, a rocky island, 13 miles large and 2 miles wide. Manhattan is the business centre of the nation. The average New Yorker works in an office in Manhattan.

4. As the financial headquarters of the capitalist world, New York is the home of some of the world's largest corporations and the New York and American stock exchanges. Wall street symbolizes the money-market and financiers of the U.S.A.

5. There are many places of interest in New York. One of them is Empire State Building (102 stories). Another place of interest is Metropoliten Museum of Art. This collection covers 5000 years and ranges geographically through Egypt, Greece, Rome, the Near and Far East.

6. Broadway is a place where most theatres are located. It is famous for its night clubs, cafes, restaurants, hotels and shops.

7. The United Nations Headquarter occupies a six-block area from 42nd and to 48th Streets and from First Avenue to the East River. The 39-storey Secretariat Building houses offices of about 5000 persons of different nationalities who form the administrative organ of the United Nations.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 предложения со словами, имеющими окончание -
s
, и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 3, 4, 7 словосочетания, в которых определения выражены существительными, и переведите их на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 4 предложения, содержащие формы сравнения, и переведите их на русский язык.

V. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 5, 6 предложения со словами it
и one
и переведите их на русский язык.

VI. Прочитайте следующие предложения; перепишите и переведите письменно предложение, которое правильно передает содержание текста:

1. The United Nations Headquarters are in Washington.

2. The United Nations Headquarters are in New York.

Text 2

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 2, 3,4.

Пояснения к тексту:

1. White House — Белый дом.

2. Thomas Jefferson Memorial — памятник Томасу Джефферсону.

3. Maunt Vernon — Маунт-Вернон (дом Дж. Вашингтона).

Washington

1. Washington is the capital of the USA. The population of Washington is about 756 000 and together with suburbs its population is over 2 800 000.

2. The city belongs neither to the north nor to the South. Washington is humid year round because it sits between two rivers, the Potomac and Anacostia. Washington's winters are not severe, the city shares the sweaty summers of Lousiana and the windy cold of the Northwest.

3. Washington is like no other city of the USA. New York is a centre of finance, of shipping, of fun; New (Orlean deals in cotton; Chicago will sell you wheat and a hundred heads of catties. But Washington's only industry is government. The White House, where the U.S. President lives and works, the Capitol, the home of the U.S. Congress, and the Supreme Court are all in Washington. The Library of Congress, the biggest existing library, contains more than 13 million books in various languages.

4. There are many places of interest in Washington. One of them is the Thomas Jefferson memorial. This is a memorial to the third President of the United States, the Founder of the Democratic Party.

5. No visit to Washington is complete without an excursion to the home of George Washington at Mount Vernon. The estate, a typical 18th century plantation home, is on the Potomac River, 15 miles south of the capital.

6. Washington is a constant scene of mass demonstrations, «hunger marches» and antiwar rallies.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 2, 3, 4 предложения со словами, оформленными окончаниями -
s
, и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзацев 4, 5, 6 словосочетания, в которых определения выражены существительными, и переведите их на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзаца 3 предложение, содержащее форму сравнения, и переведите его на русский язык.

V. Выпишите из абзацев 2, 4 предложения со словами it
и one
, переведите их на русский язык.

VI. Прочитайте следующие предложения; перепишите и переведите письменно то предложение, которое правильно передает содержание текста:

1. Washington's winters are mild.

2. Washington's winters are severe.

Text3

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 3, 4, 5.

Chicago

1. Chicago with a population of about three and a half million is the second largest city in the United States (New York is the first). It is a centre of industry for the middle part of the country.

2. The city is first in the nation in manufacturing of machinery and electronic parts. The stock-yards and meatpacking plants are also famous.

3. Chicago is the biggest railroad centre. It has a vast commerce by many railways and by the lake, and exports wheat, meat and manufactured goods. Also 40 per cent of the country's motor freight moves in and out of Chicago. More air-lines converge on Chicago than any other city of the U.S.A.

4. Chicago is also an important centre of culture and science. It is the seat of the University of Chicago and several other institutions, and has important libraries and art collections. Chicago was the site of the first nuclear chain reaction (1942) and is still a leader in nuclear research.

5. The city was from the start a big melting pot of different nationalities. About one in four Chicago citizens is black. The Chicago Negroes are almost as numerous as those in New York a city twice as large. Chicago's Negroes have a long history of participation in basic industry.

6. From six to seven million tourists come to Chicago every year and another million and a half come to business and political gatherings.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 предложения со словами, оформленными окончанием -
s
, и переведите их на рус­ский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзацев 3, 4, 5, 6 предложения, в которых определения выражены существительными, и переведите их на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 3, 5 предложения, содержащие формы сравнения8
и переведите их на русский язык.

V. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 3, 4, 5 предложения со словами it
и one
и переведите их на русский язык.

VI. Прочитайте следующие предложения; перепишите и переведите предложение, которое правильно передает содержание текста:

1. New York is twice as large as Chicago.

2. New York is three times as large as Chicago.

Text 4

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

Bristol

1. Bristol is the eighth largest city and seaport on the west coast of England with a population of 395 000. It has a total of just under 160 000 homes, of which 40 000 or 25 per cent are still owned by the council. The rivers Avon and From ran there.

2. The harbour was constructed during the early part of the 19th century. There are many deep-water docks in Bristol.

3. Important public buildings are the exchange, Colston Hall, the museum and art gallery. Bristol possesses the oldest public library in the British Isles, dating from the 15th century. Bristol is noted for its university. It also has soapworks, tanneries, tobacco factories, chocolate factories, sugar factories, shoe factories, copper, lead, iron, and chemical works, and shipbuilding yards.

4. The city is confronted by huge problems of housing shortage and of disrepair in both the council and the private stock. Government cannot tackle these problems effectively and the situation is rapidly deteriorating. The council's housing waiting list has doubled in the last three years and now stands at a total of 13500 families. This is acknowledged to be only the tip of an iceberg. Over 20000 people are estimated to be effectively homeless in Bristol if all categories are aggregated.

5. Demand for public rented accommodation is rising rapidly as the number of households increases and as home ownership is priced out of the reach of more and more people. House prices in Bristol are soaring. The average price is now 49000, while former council houses are selling for over 40000 in some parts of the city.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 2, 3 и 4 предложения со словами, оформленными окончанием -
s
, и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзацев 3 и 4 словосочетания, в которых определения выражены существительными, и переведите их на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзацев 1 и 3 предложения, содержащие формы сравнения, и переведите их на русский язык.

V. Выпишите из абзаца 3 предложение со словом it
и переведите его на русский язык.

VI. Прочитайте следующие предложения, перепишите и переведите письменно предложение, которое правильно передает содержание текста:

1. The city is confronted by huge problems of housing short age.

2. The city is not confronted by huge problems of housing shortage.

Text 5

I, Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 4, 5 и 6.

Great Towns, Cities

1. You may wish to begin exploring England with the sights and shops of London, but there are many other fascinating cities that you should visit during your stay. Only an hour or so from the capital is Cambridge, the famous university town. There are many museums, colleges open to the public, good shops, walks along the river, and boats for hire.

2. To the west lies Stratford-on-Avon, an attractive town, famous as the birthplace of William Shakespeare in the 16th century. A day here must include a trip to a performance by the Royal Shakespeare Company at the Royal Shakespeare or Swan Theatre.

3. In eastern England is Norwich, a proud city with narrow, winding alleyways, antique shops, a large outdoor market, cosy pubs and coffee shops. The city's cathedral is a magnificent piece of architecture, and there is even a castle completed with dungeons!

4. At the geographical heart of England there is the vibrant city of Birmingham with its excellent shopping and entertainment to cater for every taste. The visitor will also find a legacy of attractive Victorian architecture and the intricate network of canals as evidence of a rich industrial heritage.

5. Manchester is another warm-hearted city. Innovative attractions include the Museum of Science and Industry, the Air and Space Museum and the Studios Tour, where visitors can explore the sets of famous television shows like Coronation Street, or sit on the Back Benches of a lifesize House of Commons.

6. Further north is the city of Durham, which boasts a massive 11th
-century castle standing opposite a beautiful cathedral. Both are situated on cliffs, high above the river Wear, which snakes around them. There are also narrow, cobbled streets, ancient buildings, and a market square which comes to life each Saturday.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 3, 5 и 6 предложения со словами, оформленными окончанием -
s
, и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 2, 3, 5 и 6 словосочетания, в которых определения выражены существительными, и переведите их на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзацев 1 и 2 предложения, в которых встречаются модальные глаголы, и переведите их на русский язык.

V. Выпишите из абзацев 1, 3 и 6 предложения со словом there
и переведите их на русский язык.

VI. Прочитайте следующие предложения; перепишите и переведите письменно предложение, которое правильно передает содержание текста:

1. In London there are many museums open to the public.

2. In London there are not many museums open to the public.

Text 6

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4.

Corporation

1. A corporation is a business organization authorized by the state to conduct business and is a separate legal entity from its owners. It is the dominant form of American business because it makes it possible to gather large amounts of capital together.

2. Before a corporation may do business, it must apply for and receive a charter from the state The state must approve the articles of incorporation, which describe the basic purpose and structure of the proposed corporation.

3. The stockholders usually meet once a year to elect directors and to carry on other important business. Each share of stock entitles its owner to one vote. A stock holder who cannot attend the meeting can legally authorize another to vote his or her shares by proxy.

4. Management of a corporation consists of the board of directors who decide corporate policy, and the officers, who carry on the daily operations. The board is elected by the stockholders, and the officers are appointed by the board.

5. Some specific duties of the board of directors are to declare dividends, authorize contracts, decide on executive salaries, and arrange major loans with banks. Management's main means of reporting the corporations financial position and results of operations is its annual report.

6. The corporation form of business has several advantages over the sole proprietorship and partnership. It is a separate legal entity and offers limited liability to the owners, ease of capital generation and ease of transfer of ownership. In addition, it allows centralized authority, responsibility and professional management.

7. The corporation form of business also has several disadvantages. It is subject to greater government regulation and double taxation. In addition, separation of ownership and control may allow management to make harmful decisions.

II. Ответьте на вопросы:

1. Why is a corporation the dominant form of American business?

2. How often do the stockholders usually meet?

3. What does management of a corporation consist of?

4. What can a stockholder do if he cannot attend the meeting?

5. What advantages has the corporate form of business?

III. Найдите в тексте термин stock и уточните его значение в данном тексте.

IV. Вместо пропуска вставьте подходящее слово: board of directors, stockholders, business, disadvantages, advantages:

1. A corporation is the dominant form of American ...

2. Management of a corporation consists of the ...

3. The board of directors is elected by the ...

4. The corporation form of business has several... over the sole proprietorship.

5. The corporate form of business also has several....

V. Найдите в тексте производные от следующих слов: to
elect
,
to
own
,
to
manage
,
to
add
.

Text 7

I. Прочитайте и переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

UNCTAD
1

VII and After

1. The world economy in the 1980s has been characterized by a low-down in growth of demand and output, compared with the preceding two decades, generally lower rates or inflation, difficulties in many countries in adapting to structural changes, a mounting stock of debt, high real interest rates, high and increasing levels of protection, commodity prices depressed to their lowest level in 50 years, terms-of-trade losses sustained by commodity exporting countries, and a generally insecure economic environment in which million of people still lack the basic conditions for a decent life.

2. In this difficult global economic situation, there has been a diversity of socio-economic experiences. Developed market-economy countries have succeeded in curbing inflation and in maintaining steady, though slow, growth, but unemployment levels are still high and external payments imbalances remain excessive in some of these countries. On account of their dominant share in world trade, the impact of their slow growth has been transmitted to other countries which had to reckon with it as a significant factor in policy formulation. Growth has slowed also in countries of Eastern Europe.

3. Most developing countries had to retrench; they have been unable to consolidate and build upon the economic and social progress which they had achieved during the two preceding decades. In the 1980s, the average per capita income of the developing countries as a whole fell further behind that of the developed countries. Indeed, per capita incomes declined in most countries in Latin America and in sub-Saharan Africa. Nevertheless, a number of more industrialized export-led economies of East Asia, and the larger Asian low-income economics, have continued to grow.

1
Примечание
.
UNCTAD — United Nations Conference on Trade and Development — Конференция ООН по торговле и развитию.

II. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1. What were the main tendencies in the world economy in the 1980s?

2. What did developed market economy countries succeed in?

3. Who had the dominant share in world trade?

4. Did the average per capita income of the developing countries fall further behind that of the developed countries?

5. What was the situation like in more industrialized export-led-economies of East Asia?

III. Найдите в тексте слово demand
и уточните его значение.

IV. Вместо пропусков вставьте подходящее слово: rate
,
level
,
incomes
,
debt
,
share
:

1. The external... of many developing countries is growing.

2. The ... of developing countries in world trade is still not very great.

3. The ... of inflation must be curbed.

4. Unemployment... is still high in many developed countries.

5. Per capita ... have declined in many countries.

V. Найдите однокоренные слова для следующих слов: ba
sis, employment, industry, to pay, to formulate.

Text 8

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2.

Impact of Trade Restrictions

1. The 1980s have also been a time of complexity for economic policy-makers in both developed and developing countries. Increasing unpredictability has been manifested in the unilateral adoption of trade restrictions specific to countries and products, and in the appearance of massive and often distorting flows of funds within and across international currency and commodity markets. Associated with these phenomena have been interrelated problems arising from currency misalignments, persistent payments inbalances, an uneven distribution of international liquidity, and net outflows of financial resources from many developing countries.

2. Both policy-makers and entrepreneurs are being challenged by an acceleration in the pace of structural changes which are very difficult to harness. These changes can be traced to a number of underlying factors, the most important of which are the impact of scientific advance and applied technology, and government policy. These factors are affecting production, consumpiton and trade patterns; producing far-reaching developments in the service sector, particularly financial services, and in commodity markets; significantly altering employment patterns; and leading to shifts in international competitiveness.

3. Many countries-developed and developing alike, including the least developed countries are investing substantial efforts in adjusting their economies to these new realities in pursuit of their national objectives. They are also reappraising the respective roles of the public and private sectors in the economy. However, while some have made progress in recent years in reducing or eliminating growth-retarding distortions and rigidities by enhancing the structural flexibility of their economies, much remains to be done.

II. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1. What was the result of structural changes in the 1980s?

2. What factors were affecting production?

3. In what way were developed and developing countries trying to adjust their economies to new conditions?

4. What countries were reappraising their respective roles in the public and private sectors of the economy?

5. What were the main problems for economic policy makers in the 1980s?

III. Найдите в тексте слово funds
и уточните его значение.

IV. Вместо пропусков вставьте подходящее слово или словосочетание: расе
, consumption, objective,
shift, the public,
sector:

1. The role ... in Russian economy is diminishining.

2. The... of National development must be clearly formulated.

3. The ... of production growth is being discussed at the conference.

4. The ... of basic commodities is steadily increasing.

5. The recent years have seen ... to market economies in many countries.

V. Найдите однокоренные слова для следующих слов: to
develop, to restrict, investment, competitive, nation.

Text 9

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

The Economy of Great Britain

1. Britain was a pioneer in the industrial revolution and has retained a manufacturing base of fundamental importance to the economy (accounting for some 25 per cent of gross domestic product — GDP) in spite of a rapid growth in the services sector (nearly two-thirds of GDP). Petroleum and natural gas now account for 4 per cent of GDP and agriculture for 2 per cent (supplying more than half country's food). Britain has become selfsufficient in oil with the development of resources in the continental shelf under the North Sea. Although this has brought great economic benefits, it has contributed to problems of economic adjustment: the external value of sterling is partially influenced by the position in the international oil market, and this may cause strains in Britain's international trade.

2. The economy is based largely on private enterprises but has some major publicly owned industries (notably coal, steel, gas, electricity and railways) and a few joint enterprises. The Government is reducing the size of the public sector, returning parts of the steel, transport, telecommunications and aerospace industries, for example, to private enterprise.

3. The working population is just over 26
million (in a total population of 56 million) of which 7 per cent are self-employed. Just under 40 per cent are women. Unemployment has risen to around 3 million.

4. Britain exports over 30 per cent of its GDP. Machinery and transport equipment account for about one-third of exports while finished manufactures comprise over one-third of imports. A recent trend has been the large fall in oil imports and the emergence of a significant export trade. Germany and the United States are Britain's leading trading partners. Britain's fellow members in the European Community accounted for 43 per cent of its exports and 41 per cent of imports in 1990, compared with 30 and 32 per cent respectively in 1972.

5. Earnings from invisible exports, including financial and other services, are about half as much as those from visible exports.

6. The Government aims to defeat inflation through firm fiscal and monetary policies, increasing competition, reducing the rise in public expenditure and restoring incentives to industry, particu­larly small businesses.

II. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1. What is the fundamental importance to the economy of Great Britain?

2. What natural resources is Great Britain rich in?

3. What branches of industry in Great Britain do you know?

4. What does Great Britain export?

5. Which countries are Britain's leading trading partners?

III. Найдите в тексте слово value
и уточните его значение в данном тексте.

IV. Вместо пропусков вставьте подходящее слово: oil,
sterling, account, based, public:

1. The economy of Great Britain is ... largely on private enter prises.

2. Britain has become self-sufficient in ... with the develop ment of resources in the continental shelf under the North Sea.

3. The external value of ... is partially influenced by the position in the international oil market.

4. Petroleum and natural gas ... for 4 per cent of GDP.

5. The Government is reducing the size of the ... sector.

V. Найдите производные слова от следующих слов: to em
ploy, to develop, economy, to adjust, part.

Text 10

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

The Trade of Great Britain

1. International trade has always been important to Britain but its importance has increased markedly in recent years. Exports of goods and services now account for nearly a third of gross domestic product, compared with almost a fifth some 30 years ago; imports have shown a broadly similar trend as proportions of home demand.

2. The fifth largest trading nation in the world, Britain provides just over 9 per cent of the main manufacturing countries' exports of manufactured goods. The country is a major supplier of aeropace products, motor vehicles, electrical equipment, chemicals, textiles and most types of machinery, and is a growing oil exporter. It relies upon imports for about two-fifths of total consumption of foodstuffs and for most of the raw materials required by industry.

3. Manufactured goods account for about three-quarters of exports of goods (according to trade statistics); a feature is the shift towards finished, rather than semi-finished, goods. The most important group is machinery and transport equipment (34 per cent of exports in 1980). The share of fuels rose from 4 per cent of exports in 1975 to 14 per cent in 1980 when, for the first time, exports of North Sea oil exceeded imports of crude oil.

4. An increasing proportion of trade has been with other European Community member countries. They account for six of the top ten export markets, taking 43 per cent of British exports in 1980, and for six of the ten leading suppliers of goods to Britain. Britain's largest single export market was the Federal Republic of Germany and the largest single supplier of imports was the United States.

5. Long an advocate of the removal of artificial trading barriers, Britain has taken a leading part in the activities of such organizations as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the International Monetary Fund, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. The European Community's common customs tariff, which Britain applies is on average, at a similar level to the tariffs of other major in­dustrial countries. Britain maintains few restrictions on its interna­tional trade. Most goods may be imported freely and only a narrow range of goods is subject to export control.

6. Invisible trade (which includes payments and receipts for services such as shipping, travel and civil aviation, insurance and interest, profits and dividends arising out of overseas investment and transfers between Britain and other countries) is of great significance to the economy, accounting for one-third of overseas earnings. Net earnings from invisibles are second only to those of the United States.

II. Ответьте на следующие вопросы:

1. Which place in international trade does Great Britain hold?

2. What does Great Britain export?

3. What does Great Britain import?

4. Is Great Britain a member of the European Community?

5. What countries does the European Community consist of?

III. Найдите в тексте слово account
и уточните его значение.

IV. Вместо пропусков вставьте одно из слов: account for,
market, investment, equipment, leading, part:

1. Manufactured goods about three-quarters of exports of goods.

1. The most important group is machinery and transport ... .

2. Britain's largest single export ... was the Federal Republic of Germany.

3. Britain has taken a … in the activities of such organizations as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the International Monetary Fund and so on.

4. The Government of Britain welcomes both inward and outward ...

V. Найдите в тексте слова, производные от следующих глаголов: to supply, to lead, to remove, to act, to pay.

Text 11

Milbank, Tweed, Hadley
& Me Cloy

1. Milbank is known to have offices in New York, Los Angeles, Washington, London, Tokyo, Hong Kong, Singapore.

2. Milbank, Tweed has been actively involved during the past several years in the emerging market for legal services in Central Europe. This involvement has stemmed largely from the Firm's broad representation of project developers and other Western companies exploring new business opportunities in these markets as well as our representation of key financial institutions, including Finnish and Austrian banks. The growth of the practice has been facilitated both by the Firm's traditional strength in relevant practice areas, such as joint ventures, project finance, trade transactions, trade regulation and leasing, and by the ability of Milbank lawyers in these practice areas to communicate in Russian and in Central European languages, including German, Polish and Hungarian.

3. Milbank has been advising clients on business in Central Europe for many years. Most recently this advice has focused on the formation of joint ventures with Central European partners. The Firm has represented clients in a wide variety of these transactions, ranging from hotel and business service centres in Moscow to fish processing plants in Estonia and in Vladivostock. Other sectors with respect to which we have advised clients on joint ventures include petroleum exploration, cement, furniture manufacture and foods. Over the years Milbank has also advised Western banks of Central European countries. The Firm is now analyzing new legislation enacted in Russia and other Central European countries that would permit Western companies to invest through the acquisition of shares in joint stock companies and other means, including investment in the context of privatization programs.

4. Milbank's leading reputation in International project finance has ensured its involvement in some of the largest and most complex projects so far considered in Central Europe. For example, Milbank represented the lead manager and the banks in connection with the first major project financing to be completed in Russia, the $330 million modernization of a polyethylene plant in Budyenovsk. We are currently advising on the project financing of a Moscow hotel and business service center, which is in the final stage of completion. In connection with its joint venture practice, Milbank has worked with clients on the structure of financing for a wide variety of other Central European projects.

5. In recognition of its project finance expertise, three Milbank partners were invited to Moscow last May to provide a seminar on the applicability of Western project finance techniques to the Russian market. The seminar was attended by more than 25 bank officers from the project finance, economic feasibility and foreign investment divisions. As a result of the seminar, Milbank has developed a closer working relationship with key officials and has initiated a dialogue with the Russian banks identifying new structures for project finance in Russia.

I. Прочтите и устно переведите со словарем весь текст. Письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 3 предложение, где инфинитив употреблен в функции определения. Переведите это предло­жение на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзаца 3 предложения с отглагольным существительным и причастием I. Переведите эти предложения на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзаца 4 предложение с Participal I. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

V. Найдите ответы в тексте на следующие вопросы:

1. What has facilitated the growth of the Milbank's practice?

2. Which countries are Milbank's offices situated in?

3. What has ensured Milbank's involvement in some of the largest and most complex projects?

4. Where was the seminar on the applicability of Western project finance techniques held by Milbank last May?

5. How many bank officers attended a seminar on the applicability of Western project finance techniques in Moscow last May?

Text 12

Milbank, Tweed, Hadley and Me Cloy

1. Milbank is known to have advised a variety of Western clients over the years on trade, licensing and related transactions with Central Europe.

2. Most recently, for example, we advised a major American retail company on its sale of certain equipment for use in Russian hotels and assisted a Western bank in devising a structure to monetize East German foreign trade obligations. Milbank has many years of experience in advising clients on export controls and technology transfer restrictions that may be applicable in these transactions. Stanley Marcuss, the partner in charge of our Washington office, was responsible during the Carter Administration for the enforcement and implementation of the U.S. export control regulations.

3. Capital Markets Transactions. Milbank has represented a number of U.S. and Japanese financial Institutions in connection with syndicated loans and other capital markets transactions with Central European borrowers. The Firm has assisted a
variety of Japanese leasing and trading companies in the structuring of so-called «square-trip» transactions, pursuant to which these financial institutions have furnished credits to International Investment Bank. Milbank lawyers also advised the arranger and sole dealer in connection with a Euro-commercial paper program for the National Bank of Hungary, the first such program established for a Central European issuer. In addition, Milbank lawyers represented banks during the 1980s in a number of sovereign loan restructurings for Central European countries, including Poland, Yugoslavia and Romania, and recently have been actively representing banks in the secondary market for trading such loans.

4. Milbank's country fund practice has recently expanded to include Central European countries. Last June, for example, Milbank represented the underwriters in the international offering of interests in the Austro-Hungary Fund Limited, a closed-end com-oany incorporated in Guernsey for the purpose of investing in equity and equity-related securities of Austrian and Hungarian companies.

5. Milbank lawyers have kept abreast of key developments in the emerging securities markets of Central Europe both through consultation with the Firm's long standing client, the New York Stock Exchange, and through their representation of investment banking clients who are exploring these markets. This October, for example, Milbank is accompanying the New York Stock Exchange to Moscow to make a presentation, at the invitation of the Russian Government, on the operation and regulation of Western stock exchanges.

6. Milbank engages in an extensive practice serving developers, domestic and foreign investors (including governmental entities), commercial banks and other institutional lenders, corporations and investment banks involved in major real estate transactions throughout the United States. Lawyers at the Firm have participated in the purchase, development, financing and sale of many important real estate projects in the United States and abroad.

7. Assignments that indicate the scope of the Firm's real estate practice include representing Colgate -Palmolive in connecton with its phased development of a project on the New Jersey «Gold Coast»; the planning and development of Embarcadero Center in San Francisco; representing a Venezuelan company in a joint venture for the development of Paternoster Square, a 7-acre site abutting St. Paul's Cathedral in the City of London; and joint ventures between a major Japanese construction company and New York developers involving more than $1 billion of equity investments in real estate projects.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите со словарем весь текст. Письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 3 предложение с герундием. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзаца 6 предложение с отглагольным существительным. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзаца 5 предложение с причастием I. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

V. Найдите ответы в тексте на следующие вопросы:

1. Which questions does Milbank advise on?

2. What problems do Milbank lawyers deal with?

3. What have lawyers at the Firm participated in?

4. What companies did Milbank represent in joint ventures? Whose invitation did Milbank accompany the New York Stock

5. Exchange to Moscow at?

Text 13

Milbank

1. Milbank is known to have extensive experience in representing clients in the issuance of the most innovative financial instruments appearing on the capital markets, including principal exchange-rate linked securities, foreign currency warrants (including money-backed warrants), index notes, reverse index notes, and auction rate preferred stock.

2. In the Euro-finance market, Milbank has been involved in a significant number of “deals of the year” and deals involving new capital market techniques as listed by Euromoney.

3. More than 125 corporate finance attorneys regularly help clients structure and execute complex transactions, develop so phisticated new products and cope with regulatory barriers and tax implications. We have had extensive experience in corporate workouts, restructuring the debt of developing countries and assisting troubled banks and their shareholders in negotiating assisted acquisitions and settlements with regulators, and we work closely with a number of leading investment and commercial banks, including both foreign and domestic institutions.

4. Milbank represents many industrial and commercial enterprises, ranging from some of the world's largest corporations to many medium and smaller-sized companies. Over 130 lawyers who practice in the general corporate area provide clients in the United States and overseas with advice on corporate, commercial and regulatory questions in a broad range of business transaction.

5. bi addition to general corporate mergers and acquisitions, Milbank has in-depth experience handling insurance, utility, banking and thrift industry mergers. We have represented many domestic and foreign buyers and sellers, active in cross-border transactions, and also regularly involved in representing venture capital partnerships and funds.

6. Milbank's lawyers have experience in leveraged buyouts involving public and private companies engaged in a variety of businesses, including manufacturing, mining, health care, entertainment, retail department stores, communications and financial services. Milbank has represented clients in all capacities, including management buyers, sellers, equity investors and lenders.

7. Milbank's banking and corporate practitioners have extensive experience in helping our clients through the banking regulatory maze, dealing with regulations of the Federal Reserve Board, the Controller of the Currency, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and state banking authorities. We have particular strength in structuring investments in utility properties to avoid regulation by the SEC, FERC or state authorities which would diminish the expected return on highly leveraged investments.

8. Our experience also includes all of the SEC and state securities regulations with which a corporate or financial institution operating in the United States must comply, including rules pertaining to mergers and acquisitions, financial controls, board of directors proceedings and corporate disclosure.

I. Прочтите и устно переведите со словарем весь текст. Письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 4 предложение с герундием. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзаца 5 предложение с причастием I. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзаца 6 предложение с инфинитивом. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

V. Дайте ответы на вопросы по тексту:

1. Whom has Milbank represented?

2. What do Milbank's lawyers have experience in?

3. What has Milbank been involved in?

Text 14

Milbank, Tweed. Hadley & Me Cloy

1. The Los Angeles office of Milbank is known to be opened in 1987 to meet the needs of clients in a region characterized by dynamic growth and change. The Firm has responded with dynamic growth of its own. Some 75 partners and associates, including a number from our New York office and others from established Los Angeles firms, are now located in Los Angeles.

2. Our Los Angeles office provides services in all of the practice areas previously described, and complements and draws on our worldwide capabilities. We regularly provide a full range of legal services to regional, national and international leaders in banking, commerce and industry.

3. Project and Utility Finance. Because of Milbank's depth in banking and finance, the Firm has developed one of the nation's largest and most experienced teams of lawyers who have played a major role in structuring and financing some of the world's largest energy, natural resource and industrial projects. In addition to traditional public and private offerings in the capital markets, we have pioneered the use of innovative financing techniques for major new utility projects. In 1989 alone, the Firm completed more than 33 project financings, with a total capital cost of approximately $5.7 billion. Milbank attorneys are also involved in innovative financings such as the Virginia Toll Road Privatization Project and the Denver Highway Privatization project.

4. With 45 lawyers drawn from different practice areas and located in each of our seven offices worldwide, Milbank has represented clients in an extraordinary variety of lease transactions, including leveraged leases of equipment as diverse as satellite transponders, aircraft, vessels, mining and drilling equipment, leveraged leases of entire facilities, and sales and leasebacks of real estate. The Firm has represented clients in completing more than 70 major lease financing transactions in one year alone, with an aggregate value of over $6 billion, and has represented all sides on lease transactions: debt, equity, trustee and arranger.

5. Trusts and Estates. Milbank has long maintained an active trusts and estates practice. The department's 24 attorneys engage in a practice encompassing domestic and international estate planning; administration of trusts and decedents' estates; representation of nonprofit organizations; trusts and estates litigation; and domestic relations counseling and litigation in matrimonial and other sensitive family matters.

6. Clients include a number of the leading banks, major foundations, museums, universities, hospitals, other charitable and cultural institutions and public interest groups and many prominent families and high net worth individuals.

7. Our bankruptcy and reorganization practice, dating back over 50 years, has always been an important area of the Firm. In recent years, Milbank has represented parties in most of the major workouts and corporate reorganizations in the United States and our bankruptcy, and reorganization practice has taken a leadership role in corporate restructurings.

8. We have one of the largest bankruptcy practices of any law firm, with more than 35 lawyers working in this area. In addition, a substantial number of lawyers from our corporate, banking, tax and litigation departments devote a large percentage of their practice to bankruptcy and reorganization work. Milbank's experience in all these areas enhances our ability to find solutions to our clients' business challenges.

I. Прочтите и устно переведите со словарем весь текст. Письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 8 предложение с инфинитивом в функции обстоятельства цели. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзаца 8 предложение с независимым причастным оборотом. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзаца 4 предложение с герундием, переведите его на русский язык.

V. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:

1. When was the Los Angeles office of Milbank opened?

2. Why was the Los Angeles office of Milbank opened?

3. What clients does the department «Trusts and Estates» include?

4. How many years does the bankruptcy and reorganization

5. practice date back?

6. What is Milbank noted for?

Text 15

Milbank

1. Milbank, Tweed, Hadley & McCloy is known to have an office in Washington.

2. Milbank's Washington practice focuses on the areas of international trade and investment, regulation of financial institutions (including a strong bank and thrift mergers and acquisitions ptactice), corporate finance including leveraged buyouts, representation of financial institutions and investment banks in securitization of pooled assets, federal energy regulation, including electricity and natural gas and corporate tax. We counsel and represent clients in the fields of U.S. and foreign banking transactions, general corporate law, bankruptcy, intellectual property, international trade and business transactions, and securities and commodity futures regulation. We regularly help clients in matters involving Congress, the Executive Branch, independent regulatory agencies and the federal courts, as well as in negotiations among private parties.

3. London Practice. Milbank attorneys in our London office offer United States-based and international clients the Firm's services there, with an emphasis on banking and corporate finance. Our corporate practice in London includes both Euromarket finance, ranging from conventional Euromarket securities to innovative asset repackagings, and representation of European clients raising funds or making acquisitions in the U.S. Our banking lawyers provide advice on U.S. bank regulatory issues and have extensive experience in a wide range of transactions, including project finance, leveraged lease transactions, LBO finance, sovereign debt restructurings, debt-equity swaps and syndicated lending. We provide clients with analysis and up-to-date information on developments leading to 1992, the year designated by the European Community for the completion of a single European market.

4. Structured Finance. Milbank represents some of the leading investment banks as well as commercial banks in the development flissuance of asset-backed investment products involving the securitization of commercial and residential real estate mortgages, consumer loans, trade receivables and receivables backed by established trademarks. Our lawyers in the structured finance area have served as underwriters' or issuers' counsel in connection with over $16 billion in offerings in recent years. These have included: public offerings of collateralized mortgage obligations, public offerings of residential mortgage loan pass-through securities, and private placements of residential and commercial mortgage loan pass-through securities.

5. Bank Credit. Milbank's bank transactional work has long been considered outstanding. We are one of the leading firms engaged in lesser developed country (LDC) debt restructuring and in such related areas as LDC debt trading and swaps, both debt-for-debt and debt-for-equity. Our detailed knowledge of bank regulatory, corporate, tax and accounting complexities enables us to structure elaborate transactions in innovative ways.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите со словарем весь текст. Письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 4 предложение с отглагольным существительным. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

III. Выпишите из абзаца 3 предложение с причастием I. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

IV. Выпишите из абзаца 5 предложение с инфинитивом. Переведите это предложение на русский язык.

V. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:

1. What does Milbank's Washington practice focuse on?

2. What does Milbank's London practice focuse on?

3. Whom does Milbank represent?

4. How has Milbank' bank transactional work been considered?

5. What does Milbank provide clients with?

Text 16

Scientific Management

1. Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915). F.W. Taylor called the Father of Scientific Management was an engineer by training. Taylor believed that management's principal object should be to secure the maximum prosperity for the employer, coupled with the maximum prosperity of each employee. The mutual interdependence of management and workers was a common message he expressed.

2. Taylor's view of science insisted upon the systematic observation and measurement of worker activities. He was driven by the notion of applying science to answer questions about efficiency, cooperation, and motivation. Taylor believed that inefficient rules of management inevitably lead inefficiency, low productivity, and low-quality work. He recommended developing a science of management, the scientific selection and development of human resources, and personal cooperation between management and workers. Taylor believed that conflict among employees would obstruct productivity and so should be eliminated.

3. Taylor advocated maximum specialization of labour. He believed the person should become a specialist and master of specific tasks. Also, he assumed that increased efficiency would result from specialization. Taylor was unhappy with anything short of the one best way. He searched through the use of scientific methods for the one best way to manage.

4. Taylor tried to find a way to combine the interests of both management and labour to avoid the necessity for sweatshop management. He believed that the key to harmony was seeking to discover the one best way to do a job, determine the optimum work pace, train people to do the job properly, and reward successful performance by using an incentive pay system. Taylor believed that cooperation would replace conflict if workers and managers knew what was expected and saw the positive benefits of achieving mutual expectations.

Ответьте
на
вопросы
:

1. What common message did Taylor express?

2. What did Taylor's view of «science» insist upon?

3. Why did Taylor try to find a way to combine the interests of both management and labour?

4. What was the key to harmony he believed in?

5. Why did Taylor advocate maximum specialization of labour?

Text 17

Managing the Future

What does it mean «managing the future»? It means paying attention to the past, to the present, and to past and current patterns of change in the world around you. In managing the future, understanding and initiating action are top priorities. Constant innovation and improvement are valuable action steps. Relying solely on the past is neither possible nor good business. Using a past orientation results in missing opportunities and not keeping up with changes in today's emphasis on the customer. The past-oriented manager wants to attract and retain customers, but focuses on other parts of the business: the accounting system, tax laws, the source and flow of available raw materials.

One future-oriented company that respects and has learned from the past and appreciates its founder is McDonald's. This fast-food firm knows that the past can't be repeated. This firm is in constant search of innovations to remain competitive, to build on its past reputation, and to improve its position in holding off more and more competitors. McDonald's innovations include the Big Mac, the Egg McMuffin, etc.

McDonald's keeps innovating and improving and learns from the past because it can't afford to be lazy and nonresponsive. The competition is too fierce and opportunistic. The firm responds to its changing external and internal environment with new products, environmentally friendly waste products, improved service and better ways of doing business.

Whether McDonald's Corporation founder Ray Kroc ever studied or considered the historical roots of management isn't known. However, by reviewing Kroc's style and strategies, we get the impression that he used the past as a way of learning how to manage his and McDonald's future.

Kroc was an innovator who favored taking action to stay ahead of the competition. The firm's history clearly shows that his insistence on quality has become a part of McDonald's internal cultural fabric.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What are top priorities in managing the future?

2. What is the difference between a past-oriented company and a future-oriented company?

3. Why is McDonald's a success?

4. Who was McDonald's Corporation founded by?

5. What has become a part of McDonald's internal cultural fabric?

Text 18

Faberge Jewelry: A Long Russian History

At the turn of the 19th century, Peter Faberge, the grandfather of the celebrated jeweler, moved from Schwedt-on-Oder to Rarnu. Here, in 1814, was born his son Gustav, founder of the famous company and father of Peter Carl Faberge.

Destined to become the most famous of the Faberge's, Carl studied in Germany, Britain, Italy, and France. In 1870, at^he age of 24, Carl came to St. Petersburg, Russia, to take over his father's business.

Faberge was soon to enjoy his first taste of success. He won a gold medal at an ail-Russian exhibition, praise from Alexander Ш, and the title of Jeweler to His Imperial Majesty and to the Royal Hermitage. Four years later, in 1885, he won international recognition in the form of a gold medal.

Faberge's greatest successes both at exhibitions and with the closely related royal families of Europe were his famous Easter eggs containing jeweled gifts. The first golden Easter egg was seen at the Nurnberg Exhibition. The idea of jeweled Easter eggs was itself nothing new. The tradition of presenting Easter eggs which were generously decorated by court jewelers, dates back to the time of Louis XV.

Yet Faberge didn't just imitate established styles nor did he copy his predecessors. His clients were struck: not only by the abundance of precious stones and the carefully considered combinations of materials that were previously regarded as incompatible. He blended multicolored gold, silver, platinum, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds with semiprecious stones (agates, jasper, and chalcedony) and mineral gems (jade, lapis, rhodonites, and obsidians).

Carl Faberge was not only bursting with new ideas, he was also an outstanding production manager. At its prime, the Faberge firm employed more than 500 craftsmen. Faberge encouraged each of them to develop his own distinctive style. Yet, despite the diversity of style and the range of Faberge products, the firm's goods are always recognizable and are always of a high quality.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. When did Carl Faberge takeover his father's business?

2. What was Faberge's greatest success?

3. How did Faberge achieve and maintain a reputation for high

4. quality products?

5. What were his clients struck by?

6. Why are Faberge products always recognizable?

Text 19

Nestle Expands Globally

The Switzerland-based Nestle corporation, once a Swiss chocolate maker, now is the world's biggest food company and the largest producer of coffee, powdered milk, and frozen dinners. The company also became number 1 in candy after passing Mars. And with the purchase of Perrier for $2.7 billion, Nestle became the world's largest producer of mineral water with a 20 per cent share of the world market. Nestle achieved its success through intensive global expansion. Nestle does only 2 per cent of its business in Switzerland: the remaining 98 per cent is in other countries.

One of the first multinational corporation, Nestle now has production facilities in more than 60 countries. Its products can be found almost everywhere around the globe. In Europe, where Nestle's success is greatest, sales of instant coffee, mineral water, yogurt, frozen foods, cold cuts, candy, and cereal bars total roughly $10.2 billion.

One secret to Nestle's success is that many of its products — especially instant coffee, chocolates, and frozen foods — appeal to consumers all over the world. For example, coffee is closing in on tea as the favourite drink in Japan. Frozen dinners, long a hit in the United States, are catching on in Europe. And of course chocolate tastes the same in any language. Although these products have to be adapted slightly to local tastes, they generally can be sold worldwide. Because of high research and development costs as well as high costs of marketing, Nestle benefits greatly by offering products with global appeal. After making large invest­ments in its products, the company has been to move brands from one country to another with relative ease.

Now Nestle is looking to what Maucher thinks is the market of the future, the Third World. Currently, 20 per cent of the world's population consumes 80 per cent of Nestle' s products. They would be satisfied if the company's products were seen in more oarts of the world. The company also will look to what Maucher considers the food of the future-pasta. As he puts it, “We can't feed the world on beefsteak. So noodles will conquer the world”.

Most industry experts agree that Nestle is in the best position of any food company to expand internationally. Most of its competitors, which have been concentrating on their domestic markets, would be happy if they were involved in the profitable international trade.

Ответьте
на
вопросы
:

1. Would you classify Nestle as a global corporation? Why or why not?

2. What is one secret to Nestle's success?

3. Which environmental considerations are most important as Nestle expands into Third World nations?

4. What does the company produce?

5. Why does the company move brands from one country to another with relative ease?

Text 20

Britain's Banking and Financial Institutions

Britain is the world's leading financial centre and the home of international banking and financial markets. The city of London holds the greatest concentration of banks in the world and is responsible for about a fifth of total international bank lending. It also accommodates the world's largest insurance and reinsurance industry and one of the world's largest stock exchanges.

The daily turnover of money in London's Foreign exchange Markets alone is about $303 billion compared to $192 billion in New York and $128 billion in Tokyo.

Over the last Britain's income from banking, financial and business services, life and general insurance, investment manage­ment and leasing has risen sharply, accounting for some 14 per cent in 1990.

During the 1980s — a decade marked by unprecedented growth and financial institutions entered a new and challenging era. Reforms also brought specific areas of service into line with other Member States in the European Union. Major retail banks serving the personal and commercial sectors have extended and improved their product and service range. The interests of individual investors have been protected and financial service institu­tions have submitted to guidelines.

Britain's leading position owes much to the traditionalism of the City and Port of London as a centre for trade; also to the City's responsiveness to new challenges. The City offers:

The world's biggest international financial markets.

A time-zone advantage in 24-hour global dealings.

Comprehensive financial expertise and innovation.

International professional advisers.

Liberal financial regulations.

Worldwide communications.

A stable political climate.

A compact location with first rate amenities (and new, prime ffice developments in nearby Docklands). World-class cultural entertainment.

I. Найдите в тексте и запишите ответы на следующие вопросы:

1. How did banking reforms taken in the 1980 affect retail banks?

2. What place do London Foreign Exchange Markets take as compared to stock Exchanges in other countries?

Text 21

London

1. London began as a Roman settlement in AD 43 and grew rapidly into a large market town. After the Romans left in AD 410 the town declined because the new conquerors, Anglo-Saxons, lived in small farming communities.

2. A new era began for London when William the Conqueror came to Britain in 1066. Medieval London ceased to exist on 2 September 1666 when a fire destroyed three-quarters of it. In the 18th
and 19th
centuries London developed as a commercial centre.

3. The gradual growth of the city helps to explain the fact that London does not have just one centre, it has a number of centres: the financial and business centre, the shopping and entertainment centre in the West End, the government centre in Westminster. Museums and art galleries abound in London, but two of the best are the British Museum and the National Gallery. The British Museum, which is still free to enter, is the oldest museum in the world and contains treasures from the Roman, Greek, Egyptian, Oriental and Asiatic cultures. Its important artefacts include Egyptian mummies and their sarcophagi.

4. The National Gallery houses a marvellous collection of over 2,200 European paintings from the 13th
to the 20th
centuries.

5. Of the many beautiful churches and cathedrals in London, Westminster Abbey is perhaps the most important.

6. The Tower of London has a fascinating past as a royal residence, armoury and treasury.

7. Nearby is Tower Bridge, the only bridge in London whose roadway rises to allow ships to pass through.

8. Inside is an entertaining exhibition bringing the history of its construction and engineering to life.

5. Today, London is a huge metropolis, an ancient and ever changing city. Most Londoners as well as tourists agree with Samuel Jonson, who once said, “When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life”.

Пояснения к тексту:

AN (Anno Domini) — новая эра (после Рождества Христо­ва)?

in AD 43 — in forty-three Anno Domini;

in AD 410 — in four hundred and ten Anno Domini 1066 ten-sixty-six
или ten hundred and sixty six.

Прочитайте абзац 4 и ответьте письменно на следующий вопрос:

What did Samuel Jonson say about London?

Text 22

Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was a man of many identities: printer, writer, statesman, inventor, thinker, and revolutionary. He was the only American to have signed the four major documents which shaped the American republic: the Declaration of Independence (1776); the Treaty of Alliance with France which joined America and France together in the war against England (1778); the Treaty of Paris signed by England and America which ended the Revolutionary War (1783); and the Constitution of the United States (1788).

Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1706, the fifteenth child of a poor maker of candles and soap. His parents emigrated from England in 1683. After attempting to work for his brother's Boston newspaper, young Franklin moved to Philadelphia where he became one of the leading printers of pamphlets and money in colonial America.

When he wasn't busy at his business, he spent his free time trying to improve the quality of life in America. He is credited with having conducted important experiments on the nature of electricity. He designed a more efficient stove for heating houses (later called the Franklin stove). He co-founded the first lending library in the United States. He invented bifocal glasses and the lightning rod a device which lessens the impact of a building being hit by lightning.

One of Franklin's» most famous publications was Poor Richard's Almanac, a calendar filled with useful information as well as catchy proverbs which have become a part of the American identity. “A penny saved is a penny earned”, “The sleeping fox catches no poultry”. “Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise”. “There are no gains without pains”. “Lost time is never found again”. These sayings have been passed down from generation to generation by Americans. During the Revolutionary War, Franklin played an important role
as statesman to France. When he was not active in colonial oolitics, Franklin was in Paris making sure that France sided with America in its war for independence. He represented America's interests to the French, and as a result, the Treaty of Alliance was signed in 1778.

Americans best remember Benjamin Franklin as the foremost example of the self-made man. Born in poverty, Franklin became one of the most significant colonial Americans. He helped to shape tho direction of American democracy and gave his energy and time to a young nation, Franklin best symbolizes for Americans what a person can be if he or she works hard and is determined and dedicated. Benjamin Franklin is America's first and most famous “rags to riches” story.

Text 23

Winston Churchill

One of the greatest statesmen who led Great Britain to victory in the Second World War was Sir Winston Churchill, a man of inexhaustible energy, a historian, a veteran of war and master of politics. He was an intense patriot and believed in his country's greatness and its historic role in Europe and in the world.

Winston Churchill was born on November 30, 1874 at Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire. After graduation from the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, the young officer wanted to make his mark. He left for Cuba. He spent there a couple of months reporting the Cuban war of independence from Spain.. Later his regiment went to India where he was both soldier and journalist. He also reported the South African War. Within a month after his arrival in South Africa he won fame for his part in rescuing an armoured train and for his success in escaping from a Boer prison camp. He returned to Britain as a military hero. In 1890 he entered politics as a Conservative and won a seat in Parliament.

In the years that followed his government and political posts alternated with military ones. He remained outside the Government from 1929 to 1939, but he continued to hold a seat in Parliament and repeatedly warned of the menace of Nazi Germany.

On September 3, 1939 Great Britain declared war on Germany. Winston Churchill was reappointed to the Admirality, installed as prime minister and later took over the Ministry of Defence. When he faced the House of Commons for the first time as prime minister, he warned of the hard road ahead. “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat”, he said. He announced his policy — “to wage war by sea, land and air” and proclaimed one aim — “victory at all costs, victory however long and hard the road may be”. The commons gave him their unanimous vote of confidence.

While the Battle of Britain raged, Winston Churchill was everywhere — at military headquarters, inspecting coastal defences, nti-aircraft batteries, visiting scenes of bomb damage, smoking his cigar, giving his «V» sign and broadcasting frank reports to the nation. He was also the perfect personification of the people he led.

With military success in 1945 came political problems. Churchill's Conservative Party failed in the postwar period, but he led ft back to office in 1951 and remained prime minister until 1955 when ill health forced him to resign.

He found pleasure in writing. The most important are his two liiasterpieces “The Second World War” and “A History of English Speaking Peoples”. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953.

In 1964 Churchill's health declined and his public appearances became rare. His death at his London home on January 24, 1965 was followed by a state funeral at which almost the whole world paid tribute. He was buried in the family grave in Blandon churchyard, Oxfordshire.

Text 24

World Domination

If the British over the centuries spread English across the world by colonization, America has spread it even more effectively and quickly by different means. Who in the world has not heard of Coca Cola, McDonald's, IBM, General Motors, Microsoft and Boeing? It is clear that American industries have made their own forms of conquest. The slate of the American dollar influences all the money markets of the world. United States foreign policy affects many other countries, both near and far.

Along with all this economic and political power, there is also unequalled power in all the fields of communication, information and entertainment. No other country has played a greater part in the development of the computer. America leads the world in the design and manufacture of hardware and in the development and production of software. UNESCO figures show that 94 per cent of Internet communications are in English.

Early in the twentieth century, America established itself as the world leader in the new medium of the cinema. In 1906, the first full-length movie was made there and in the following year filmmaking began in the Hollywood area of Los Angeles. In many countries of the world today, most people's familiarity with English comes from films, TV and other types of American entertainment.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What is Great Britain known for?

2. What is the United States of America famous for?

Text 25

The Wheels
of Commerce

Carrier's discovery has not been as disappointing as King Francis I of France had thought. Today, Canada is the largest producer of nickel and supplies the world with iron and copper as well as wood, paper, oil, asbestos, gold and silver.

In the past these raw materials were shipped to other countries to be processed. After World War П, Canada began to develop its own industries, such as manufacturing cars and aeroplanes. Canada now has the world's seventh largest economy. This has given it a strong position in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which aims to create a single market with the USA and Mexico.

Canada has moved swiftly into the future with research and development in fibre optics and communications. Thus is not surprising considering the great geographical distances and the fact that it was the home of Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone.

The wealthier provinces of Canada, such as Ontario and British Columbia, enjoy some of the highest living standards in the world. There is still poverty, however, especially in the Maritimes and the north.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What is Canada rich in?

2. What was Alexander Graham Bell?

3. What are the living standards in Canada?

Text 26

Beaches and Tea

Sri Lanka is one of the most beautiful places in the world with sandy beaches, lush green vegetation, ancient monuments and cultural riches. Tourism is very important to the economy, though war and ethnic tensions have reduced the number of visitors. Golden beaches, sheltered by coconut palms and washed by warm, blue seas are typical of Sri Lanka. The beaches of the southwest between Beruwela and Hikkaduwa are still particularly popular.

Tea is one of the Sri Lanka's leading exports. The tea estates and factories have become tourist attractions. The country is famous for its spices such as cinnamon, cardamom, cloves, nutmeg and pepper. Underneath the lush greenery and natural beauty, however, is stark poverty and exploitation. Most Sri Lankans work in agriculture and estate workers are paid only for those days they are actually needed to work. The pay is low and the cost of living is rising. There are many social problems and workers have poor living standards.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What is Sri Lanka famous for?

2. What is one of the Sri Lanka's leading exports?

3. What is the standard of living of the common people in Sri Lanka?

Text 27

Australia

Australia's prosperity has been founded on its natural resources. It produces almost every mineral from gold to uranium. In the Pilbara region of Western Australia whole mountains are being destroyed in order to extract 112 million tonnes of iron ore per year. Diamonds are also mined and the Argyle mine is the world's largest.

Traditionally, Australia was a farming country, even though only 55 per cent of the land can be used for grazing and six per cent for crops. In spite of this, Australian wealth was founded on wool, cattle and wheat. It is still a major exporter of food, making it the breadbasket of Asia. In recent years Australian wines and beers have made an international name for themselves. Beer has always been a favourite drink in Australia, though unlike the British, Australians prefer their beer ice-cold.

Agriculture and mining, however, employ comparatively few people. Tourism is now Australia's largest industry, employing six per cent of the population. More than three million visitors come to Australia each year — many of them from Japan, Korea and Singapore.

With a well educated population and Asian markets nearby, Australia is now developing modern, knowledge-based industries, such as medical science, solar energy, communications and computers.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What raw materials is Australia rich in?

2. What was Australian wealth founded on?

3. Which branches of industry is Australia developing?

Text 28

Developing in English

The combination of oil riches and foreign influence has changed the Gulf States from tribal kingdoms, with camels as the only form of transport, to modern slates with six-lane highways, in less than 50 years.

These countries did not have the technological expertise to exploit their new-found resource by themselves and largely depended on overseas companies. As a result, large numbers of skilled foreign workers are needed in the oilfields and for the many development projects. In Bahrain 60 per cent of working people are foreigners. They are from many countries, including Britain, the USA, India, Pakistan and the Philippines. Few speak Arabic, but all of them speak English as a first or second language. As a result, English is the daily working language of shops, offices and the oil industry. This may not be a permanent situation. Most foreigners are guest workers, useful only while the local people prepare to take over.

Arabic is the language of schools in the Arab Gulf States, but everyone in the region knows that they need English at the state universities, where courses like medicine and science are taught in English. Gulf governments provide scholarships for students to go to the USA or Britain.

Now satellites, cable TV and the Internet are spreading English throughout the Middle East. Not everyone is pleased at this. Many people complain that these programmes bring the corruption of the West into their homes.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What are the Gulf States famous for?

2. Why are skilled foreign workers needed in the oilfields of the Gulf States?

3. Why do Gulf governments provide scholarships for students?

Text 29

Banking and Finance

Banking and financial market operations in Britain involve a number of special institutions and financial markets which, as a result of deregulation and new legislative frameworks, are increasingly integrating. Many banking and financial institutions are unique to Britain and offer highly specialized services to individuls, companies and sovereign bodies all over the world.

The Bank of England

The Bank of England in the heart of the City of London is Britain's central bank. It is banker to the commercial banks and to the Government; manager of the National Debt; “lender of last resort”; regulator of monetary and credit conditions; and, not least supervisor of the banking system.

Commercial Banks

This is the broad title for institutions authorized under the Banking Act 1987 as deposit-taking institutions involved in the classic banking business of tailing deposits and lending money, both in the retail and wholesale markets. In Britain, they include the retail banks and institutions which offer banking services. In June 1994 there were 518 authorized banks including retail banks, merchant banks, branches of overseas banks, discount houses and banking subsidiaries of both banking and non-banking institutions from Britain and overseas.

Retail Banks

Retail banks primarily serve individuals and small to medium-sized businesses. The major retail banks operate through more than 12,148 branches offering cash deposit and withdrawal facilities and systems for transferring funds. They provide current account facilities, including interest-bearing accounts; deposit accounts; various types of loan arrangement; and offer an extending range of financial services.

Building Societies

Building societies started in the late 18th century to pool money to build houses and to buy land. They currently compete with the retail banks to attract savings from and provide mortgage finance for the personal sector. Today, they hold more savings than the other deposit-taking institutions. Building societies are “mutual” institutions, owned by their savers and borrowers. Since the Building Societies Act 1986 the societies have been able to provide a wider range of services.

International Banks

In March 1994, there were 255 branches of foreign banks in Britain which, together with firms dealing in foreign securities, employ over 60,000 British people. The majority are based in London, including Moscow Norodny Bank, Bank of China and 38 Japanese banks. Citibank of the US is the largest of the 42 banks from the US based in Britain and has extended its activities into the retail banking market and joined the clearing system.

Merchant Banks

Merchant Banks are so called because they originate from large merchants engaging in banking activity. Their traditionally important roles were helping foreign governments to raise loans and accepting Bills of Exchange but they are today involved in a range of activities including corporate finance, foreign exchange dealings and securities trading.

National Savings

National Savings aids government borrowing via a range of savings instruments. These include fixed interest and index-linked Savings Certificates, First Option Bonds and Premium Bonds among others. Part of National Savings, the National Savings Bank, formerly the Post Office Savings Bank until 1969, was set up in 1861 offering deposit services to customers through some 20,000 Post office branches. It does not operate in the same way as a retail bank or building society. The National Savings Bank had 20.7 million Ordinary and Investment accounts in June 1994. These amount to some 10.6 billion pounds of the National Savings total which was over 49.4 billion pounds in June 1994.

Discount Houses

The discount houses are unique to Britan and occupy a central position in the British monetary system. They act as intermediaries between the Bank of England and the rest of the banking sector promoting an orderly flow of funds between the authorities and the banks.

Investing Institutions

The investing institutions collect savings drawn from the personal sector and invest them in securities and other assets. The main investment institutions are insurance companies (providing general and life policies) together with insurance broking firms, pension funds, unit trusts and investment trusts. Together, they represent a massive pool of funds for investment.

Special Financing Institutions

Operating in both the public and private sectors, there are a number of different special financial institutions offering loan finance and equity capital. In the private sector they include finance houses; specialist leasing houses; factoring companies and venture capital companies, each providing an alternative to retail bank funding.

The Financial Markets

The city of Lond

on has long been the nexus of international activity in a number of highly organized financial markets. These include the London Stock Exchange, the sterling money and bond markets; the foreign exchange markets; eurocurrency markets; financial futures; bullion; commodities; shipping and freight.

Пояснения к тексту:

Bank of England — Банк Англии (Центральный банк Великобритании);

Commercial bank — коммерческий банк,

Retail bank — розничный банк (банк, занимающийся обслуживанием мелкой клиентуры);

Merchant Bank — торговый банк;

National Savings — национальный сберегательный банк;

Discount House — учетный банк;

Premium boud — облигация выигрышного займа;

Option boud — облигация с правом досрочного погашения.

Building society — жилищно-строительный кооператив, выполняющий функции сберегательного учреждения: прием вкладов и выдача ссуд на приобретение домов;

International bank — международный банк.

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. What do you know about the Bank of England?

2. What do you know about Commercial banks?

3. What do you know about Retail banks?

4. What do you know about Building Societies?

5. What can you say about International Banks?

6. What can you say about Merchant Banks?

7. What can you say about National Savings'?

8. What can you say about Discount Houses?

9. What can you say about Investing Institutions?

10. What can you say about the Financial Markets?

Text 30

What
is Accounting?

Accounting has been called «the language of business». Perhaps a better term is «the language of financial decisions». The better you understand the language, the better you can manage the financial aspects of living. Personal financial planning, investments, loans, car payments, income taxes, and many other aspects of daily life are based on accounting. A recent survey indicates that business managers believe it is more important for college students to learn accounting than any other subject. Other surveys show that persons trained in accounting and finance make it to the top of their organizations in greater numbers than persons trained in any other field. Indeed, accounting is an important subject.

Accounting is the system that measures business activities, processes that information into reports and communicates these findings to decision makers. Financial statements are the documents that report on an individual's or an organization's business in monetary amounts.

Is our business making a profit? Should we start up a new line of women's clothing? Are sales strong enough to warrant opening a new branch outlet? The most intelligent answers to business questions like these use accounting information. Decision makers use the information to develop sound business plans. As new programs affect the business's activities, accounting takes the company's financial pulse beat. The cycle continues as the accounting system measures the results of activities and reports the results to decision makers.

Bookkeeping is a procedural element of accounting as arithmetic is a procedural element of mathematics. Increasingly, people are using computers to do much of the detailed bookkeeping work at all levels — in households, business, and organizations of all types.

Users of Accounting Information

Individuals. People use accounting information in day-to-day affairs to manage their bank accounts, to evaluate job prospects, to make investments, and to decide whether to rent or to buy a house.

Businesses. Managers of businesses use accounting information to set goals for their organizations, to evaluate their progress toward those goals, and to take corrective action if necessary. Decisions based on accounting information may include which building and equipment to purchase, how much merchandise inventory to keep on hand, and how much cash to borrow.

Investors and Creditors. Investors provide the money that businesses need to begin operations. To decide whether to help start a new venture, potential investors evaluate what income they can reasonably expect on their investment. This means analyzing the financial statements of the new business. Those people who do invest monitor the progress of the business by analyzing the company's financial statements and by keeping up with its developments in the business press, for example, The Wall Street Journal, Business Week, Forbes, and Fortune.

Text 31

The Development of Accounting Thought

Accounting has a long history. Some scholars claim that writing arose in order to record accounting information. Account records date back to the ancient civilizations of China, Babylonia, Greece, and Egypt. The rulers of these civilizations used accounting to keep track of the cost of labour and materials used in building structures like the great pyramids.

Accounting developed further as a result of the information needs of merchants in the city-states of Italy during the 1400s. In commercial climate the monk Luca Pacioli, a mathematician and friend of Leonardo da Vinci, published the first known description of double-entry bookkeeping in 1494.

The pace of accounting development increased during the Industrial Revolution as the economies of developed countries began to mass-produce goods. Until that time, merchandise had been priced based on managers hunches about cost, but increased competition required merchants to adopt more sophisticated accounting systems.

In the nineteenth century, the growth of corporations, especially those in the railroad and steel industries, spurred the development of accounting. Corporation owners — the stockholders — were no longer necessarily the managers of their business. Managers had to create accounting systems to report to the owners how well their businesses were doing.

The role of government has led to still more accounting developments. When the federal government started the income tax, ac­counting supplied the concept of «income», Also, government at all levels has assumed expanded roles in health, education, labour, and economic planning. To ensure that the information that it uses to make decisions is reliable, the government has required strict accountability in the business community.

Раздел 2

Английский язык (для юристов)

Text l

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

1.
Britain is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch as head of State. Its formal title is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

2. «Great Britain» (England, Wales, and Scotland) came into existence when the English and Scottish crowns were united at the beginning of the seventeenth century and their parliaments a century later. Wales had come under the sway of the English crown in medieval times.

3. So, too, had Ireland, but the British and Irish parliaments were not united until 1801. In 1922 the southern part of Ireland, predominantly Roman Catholic, became a separate state.

4. Northern Ireland, with its Protestant majority, chose to continue as part of the United Kingdom and had its own parliament between 1921 and 1972. The deeply rooted historical divisions between the majority Protestant and the minority Roman Catholic Communities remain a major factor in the continuing civil disturbances in Northern Ireland; the Government's aim is to restore peace and stability and to find ways of giving back to the people more control over their own affairs.

5. Political stability owes much to the monarchy, the continuity of which has been broken only once (during the brief republic in the seventeenth century) in over a thousand years. Democratic government has developed from the establishment of Parliament over 700 years ago. As a constitutional monarch, the Sovereign now performs the functions of an impartial head of State.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 4, 5 предложения со словами, оформленными окончаниями -
s
,
и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Прочитайте следующие предложения, перепишите и переведите письменно предложение, которое правильно передает содержание текста.

1. The deeply rooted historical divisions between the minority Protestant and the majority Roman Catholic communities remain a major factor in the continuing civil disturbances in Northern Ireland.

2. The deeply rooted historical divisions between the majority Protestant and the minority Roman Catholic communities remain a major factor in the continuing civil disturbances in Northern Ireland.

Text 2

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

1. Britain is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional monarch as head of State. Its formal title is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

2. Parliament comprises the House of Lords and the House of Commons, together with the Queen in her constitutional role. The Lords is made up of hereditary and life peers and peeresses and the two archbishops and 24 most senior bishops of the established Church of England. The Commons is the elected House, consisting of 635 members of Parliament (MPs), each representing a local constituency area.

3. The two — chamber system has long been a feature of British parliamentary government, although over the years the balance between the two Houses has undergone a complete change. In modern practice the center of parliamentary power is in the Commons. Limitations on the Lords' powers of legislative veto are based on the belief that the main function of the House is to complement the Commons and not to rival it.

4. General elections to choose MPs and the next Government must be held at least every five years. Voting, which is not compulsory, is by secret ballot and is from the age of 18. The candidate polling the most votes in a constituency is elected — there is no form of proportional representation.

5. Under the traditional two-party system governments are formed by the party which has majority support in the Commons.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 4, 5 предложения со словосочетаниями, в которых определение выражено существительным, и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Прочитайте следующие предложения, перепишите и переведите письменно предложение, которое правильно пе­редает содержание текста.

1. General elections to choose MPs and the next Government must be held at least every four years.

2. General elections to choose MPs and the next Government roust be held at least every five years.

Text3

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

1. The leader of the Government, the Prime Minister, chooses a number of ministers, including 20 or so in the Cabinet. The second largest party traditionally forms the official Opposition with its own leader and 'shadow cabinet'. Ministers are collectively responsible for government decisions, and individually responsible for their own departments.

2. Government departments are staffed by politically neutral civil servants who serve the Government of the day regardless of its political complexion.

3. As a member of the European Community, Britain recognizes the various forms of Community law, and elects 81 of the 434 members of the European Parliament.

4. Local government is carried out by elected authorities which deal with planning and housing, education, personal social services, police, fire brigades and many other local services.

5. The authorities are given their powers by Parliament and have considerable freedom to govern local affairs in their own way. They levy locally some of the finance for their current expenditure, the rest being met by central government grants, rents and other forms of income. Capital expenditure is financed mainly by borrowing.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 4 предложение со словами, оформленными окончаниями -
s
, и переведите его на русский язык.

III. Прочитайте следующие предложения, перепишите и переведите письменно предложение, которое правильно пе­редает содержание текста.

1. The authorities are given their powers.

2. The authorities give their powers.

Text 4

The European Community

1. As a member of the European Community, Britain is part of the world's largest trading area, the ten member states comprising about 270 million people and accounting for over a third of world trade. The Community has abolished internal tariffs and certain other trade barriers, established a common customs tariff and a common policy for agriculture and made provision for the free movement of labour, capital and services. Overseas countries having special links with the Community, especially the 60 or so developing countries which are signatories of the Lome Convention, are accorded preferential treatment in aid and the development of trade. Member states contribute to a budget which finances, among other things, agricultural support, a European Social Fund, a Regional Development Fund and assistance for developing countries.

2. Through the development of political cooperation machinery, to which Britain attaches considerable importance, Community members seek to co-ordinate their foreign policies and have adopted common positions on a number of issues.

3. Membership has its critics in Britain but the Government is wholeheartedly committed to playing a full role in the Community's development. In a referendum in 1975, after renegotiation of the terms of membership, the British people voted to stay in the Community by a majority of more than two to one.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзац 1.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 3 предложение со словами, оформленными окончаниями -
s
, и переведите его на русский язык.

III. Прочитайте следующие предложения, перепишите и переведите письменно предложение, которое правильно передает содержание текста.

1. In a referendum 1975, after renegotiation of the terms of membership the British people voted not to stay in the Community by a majority of more than two to one.

2. In a referendum in 1975, after renegotiation of the terms of membership, the British people voted to stay in the Community by a majority of more than two to one.

Text 5

Overseas Relations of Great Britain

Britain's varied overseas relationships reflect its position as a major trading and maritime nation, heavily dependent on its ability to sell its goods abroad; its status as a world financial center; and its concern to help to secure peace and social progress through international co-operation. It has diplomatic relations with some 150 countries and is a member of over 120 international organizations, including, in particular, the United Nations, the European Community and the Commonwealth. In an inter - dependent world, overseas interests are seen as best provided for through co-operation on a regional or global basis.

A permanent member of the Security Council, Britain makes support for the United Nations a central feature in pursuit of its foreign policy objectives the peaceful resolution of disputes, disarmament and arms control, the protection of human rights, and the promotion of the rale of law.

The Commonwealth

Since 1945 Britain has given independence to about 50 coun­tries. Nearly all are now members of the Commonwealth, a vol­untary association of 46 states accounting for about a quarter of the world's population. Commonwealth members share a common language, similar systems of law, and close professional, academic and commercial links.

They also represent a cross-section of mankind in all stages of political and economic development, their peoples being drawn from practically all the world's main races and from all continents. The Queen is recognized as head of the Commonwealth, and is head of State in 17 member countries.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзац 1.

II. Выпишите из текста «The Commonwealth» предложения со словами, оформленными окончаниями -
s
, и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Прочитайте следующие предложения, перепишите и переведите письменно предложение, которое правильно передает содержание текста.

1. A permanent member of the Security Council, Britain doesn't make support for the United Nations a central feature in pursuit of its foreign policy objectives.

2. A permanent member of the Security Council, Britain makes support for the United Nations a central feature in pursuit of its foreign policy objective.

Text 6

The United States of America

1. In 1776, the thirteen weak British colonies in America came together, stood up, and told what was then the world's greatest power that from now on they would be free and independent states.

2. The British were neither impressed nor amused, and a bitter six-year war followed, the Revolutionary War (1776-83). It's hard to appreciate today, over two centuries later, what a revolutionary act this was. A new republic was founded, turning into reality the dreams and ideals of a few political philosophers.

3. Americans broke with age-old tradition, and so sent shock waves back across the ocean: they decided that it was their right to choose their own form of government.

4. At that time, the statement that governments should receive their powers only «from the consent of the governed» was radical indeed.

5. Something new was under the sun: a system of government, in Lincoln's words, «of the people, by the people, for the people».

6. The former colonies, now “the United States of America”, first operated under an agreement called the Articles of Confederation (1781). It was soon clear that this loose agreement among the states was not working well.

7. The central, federal government was too weak, with too few powers for defence, trade, and taxation.

8. In 1787, therefore, delegates from the states met in Philadelphia. They wanted to revise the Articles, but they did much more than that. They wrote a completely new document the Constitution, which after much argument, debate, and compromise was finished in the same year and officially adopted by the thirteen states by 1790.

6. The Constitution, the oldest still in force in the world, sets the basic form of government: three separate branches, each one having powers (“checks and balances”) over the others. It speci­fies the powers and duties of each federal branch of government, with all other powers and duties belonging to the states.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 7 предложение с независимым причастным оборотом и переведите его.

III. Прочитайте еще раз весь текст. Перепишите и закончите следующие предложения.

1. The thirteen weak British colonies in America...

2. In 1787, the central, federal government...

3. In the same year delegates from the states...

4. By 1790 the Constitution...

5. The American Constitution the oldest still in force in the world, sets...

IV. Найдите ответы в тексте и напишите их.

1. Why did the thirteen weak British colonies in America come together in 1776?

2. How many years was the Revolutionary War waged?

3. Why did Americans break with an age-old tradition?

4. What completely new document did delegates from the states write in 1787 in Philadelphia?

5. What does the Constitution of the USA set?

Text 7

The United States of America

1. The Constitution of the USA, the oldest still in force in the world, has been repeatedly amended to meet the changing needs of the nation, but it is still the «supreme law of the land». All governments and governmental groups, federal, state, and local, must operate within its guidelines. The ultimate power under the Constitution is not given to the President (the executive branch), or to the Congress (the legislative branch), or to the Supreme Court (the judicial branch). Nor does it rest, as in many other countries, with a political group or party. It belongs to “We’re the People”, in fact and in spirit.

2. In this way, Americans first took for themselves the liberties and rights that elsewhere were the privileges of an elite few. Americans would manage their own affairs in their own interests. They would elect their own representatives and make their laws, and, of course, they would make their mistakes.

3. They stated in the first ten Constitutional Amendments, known together as the Bill of Rights, what they considered to be the fundamental rights of any American. Among these rights are the freedom of religion, speech, and the press, the right of peaceful assembly, and the right to petition the government to correct wrongs. Other rights guarded the citizens against unreasonable searches, arrests, and seizures of property, and established a system of justice guaranteeing orderly legal procedures. This included the right of trial by jury, that is, being judged by one's fellow citizens.

4. The great pride Americans have in their Constitution, their almost religious respect for it, comes from the knowledge that these ideals, freedoms, and rights were not given to them by a small ruling class. Rather, they are seen as the natural “unalien-able” rights of every American, which had been fought for and won. They cannot be taken away by any government, court, official, or law.

5. The federal and state governments formed under the Constitution, therefore, were designed to serve the people and to carry out their majority wishes. One thing they didn't want their government to do is to rule them.

6. Americans expect their governments to serve them and tend to think of politicians and governmental officials as their servants. This attitude remains very strong among Americans today.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 5, 6 предложения с инфинитивным оборотом «Сложное дополнение».

III. Прочитайте еще раз весь текст. Перепишите и закончите следующие предложения.

1. The Constitution has been...

2. The ultimate power under the Constitution of the USA...

3. Americans first took for themselves...

4. Americans didn't want...

5. Americans expect...

IV. Напишите ответы на следующие вопросы.

1. Why has the Constitution of the USA been repeatedly amended?

2. Who does the ultimate power under the Constitution of the USA belong to?

3. What is the Bill of Rights?

4. Why do Americans have the great pride in their Constitution?

5. What attitude among Americans today remains very strong and why?

Text 8

The United States of America

1. Over the past two centuries, the Constitution of the USA has had considerable influence outside the United States. Several other nations have based their own forms of government on it. It is interesting to note that Lafaette, a hero of the American Revolution, drafted the French declaration of rights when he returned to France. And the United Nations Charter also has clear echoes of what once was considered a revolutionary document.

2. The governmental systems in the United States — federal, state, county, and local — are quite easy to understand. They are quite easy to understand. One foreign expert complained, for example, that the complexity of just the cities' political and governmental structure is “almost unbelievable”. The «real Chicago», he explained, «spreads over 2 states, 6 counties, 10 towns, 30 cities, 49 townships, and 110 villages. Overlaid upon this complex pattern are 235 tax districts and more than 400 school districts...».

3. There are, however, several basic principles which are found at all levels of American government. One of these is the “one person, one vote” principle which says that legislators are elected from geographical districts directly by the voters. Under this principle all election districts must have about the same number of residents.

4. Another fundamental principle of American government is that because of the system of checks and balances, compromise in politics is a matter of necessity, not choice. For example, the House of Representatives controls spending and finance, so the President must have its agreement for his proposals and programs. He cannot declare war, either, without the approval of Congress.

5. In foreign affairs the president is also strongly limited. Any treaty must first be approved by the Senate. If there is no approval, there is no treaty. The rale is ‘the President proposes, but Congress disposes’. What a President wants to do, therefore is often a different thing from what a President is able to do.

6. 6 Under the Constitution of the USA the federal and state gov­ernments were designed to serve the people and carry out their majority wishes. One thing they did not want their government to do is to rale them. Americans expect their governments to serve them and tend to think of politicians and governmental officials as their servants. This attitude remains very strong among Americans today.

I.. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 6 предложение с инфинитивным оборотом «Сложное дополнение».

III. Прочитайте еще раз весь текст. Перепишите и закончите следующие предложения.

1. Over the past two centuries, the Constitution of the USA...

2. One foreign expert complaints...

3. There are several basic principles of the American government:...

4. The President of the USA must...

5. Americans expect...

IV. Напишите ответы на следующие вопросы:

1. Why has the Constitution of the USA had considerable influence outside the United States over the past two centuries?

2. Has the Constitution of the USA had influence upon the Constitution of Russia?

3. Is it quite easy to understand the governmental systems in the United States of America? Why?

4. What are the basic principles of the American government?

5. What does it mean: «the President proposes, but Congress disposes»?

Text 9

The United States of America

1. Congress, the legislative branch of the federal government, is made up of the Senate and the House of Representatives. There are 100 Senators, two from each state. One third of the Senators are elected every two years for six-year terms of office. The Senators represent all of the people in a state and their interests.

2. The House of Representatives has 435 members. They are elected every two years for two-year terms. They represent the population of «congressional districts» into which each state is divided. The number of Representatives from each state is based upon its population. For instance, California, the state with the largest population, has 45 Representatives, while Delaware has only one. There is no limit to the number of terms a Senator or a Representative may serve.

3. Almost all elections in the United States follow the «winner-take-all» principle: the candidate who wins the largest number of votes in a Congressional district is the winner.

4. Congress makes all laws, and each House of Congress has the power to introduce legislation. Each can also vote against legislation passed by the other. Because legislation only becomes law if both Houses agree, compromise between them is necessary. Congress decides upon taxes and how money is spent. In addition, it regulates commerce among the states and with foreign countries. It also sets rules for the naturalization of foreign citizens.

5. Congress has the power to make laws, but the President may veto any act of Congress. Congress, in its turn, can override a veto by a two-thirds vote in each house. Congress can also refuse to provide funds requested by the President. President can appoint important officials of his administration, but they must be ap­proved by the Senate.

6. The President also has the power to name all federal judges; they, too, must be approved by the Senate. The courts have the power to determine the constitutionality of all acts of Congress and of presidential actions, and to strike down those they find unconstitutional.

7. The House of Representatives controls spending and finance, so the President must have its agreement for his proposals and programs. The President cannot declare war, either, without the approval of Congress. In foreign affairs, he is also strongly limited. Any treaty must first be approved by the Senate. If there is no approval, there is no treaty. The rule is “the President proposes, but Congress disposes”.

I.. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 6 предложение, в котором имеется бессоюзное придаточное определительное предложение. Переведите письменно всё предложение.

III. Прочитайте еще раз весь текст. Перепишите и закончите следующие предложения:

1. The legislative branch of the federal government of the USA is...

2. The USA Congress consists ...

3. The Senate...

4. The House of Representatives...

5. The President has...

IV. Дайте письменные ответы на следующие вопросы.

1. What is the legislative branch of the Federal Government of the USA?

2. How many members does the Senate consist of?

3. How many members does the House of Representatives consist of?

4. What power does the Senate have?

5. What does the House of Representatives control?

Text 10

The United States of America

1. The President of the United States is elected every four years to a four-year term of office, with no more than two full terms allowed. As is
true with Senators and Representatives, the President is elected directly by the voters (through state electors). In other words, the political party with the most Senators and Representatives does not choose the President. This means that the President can be from one party, and the majority of those in the House of Representatives or Senate (or both) from another. This is not uncommon.

2. Thus, although one of the parties may win a majority in the midterm elections (those held every two years), the President remains President, even though his party may not have a majority in either House. Such a result could easily hurt his ability to get legislation through Congress, which must pass all laws, but this is not necessarily so. In any case, the President's policies must be approved by the House of Representatives and the Senate before they can become law.

3. In domestic as well as in foreign policy, the President can seldom count upon the automatic support of Congress, even when his own party has majority in both the Senate and the House. Therefore he must be able to convince Congressmen, the Representatives and Senators, of his point of view. The President must bargain and compromise. This is a major difference between the American system and those in which the nation's leader represents the majority party or parties, that is, parliamentary systems.

4. A number of executive departments are known to be within the Executive Branch. Currently these are the departments of State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Resources, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy and Education.

5. Each department is established by law, and, as their names indicate, each is responsible for a specific area. The head of each department is appointed by the President. These appointments, however, must be approved by the Senate. None of these Secre­taries, as the department heads are usually called, can also be serving in Congress or in another part of the government. Each is directly responsible to the President and only serves as long as the President wants him or her to serve.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 4, 5 предложения с инфинитивными оборотами «Сложное дополнение» и «Сложное подлежащее».

III. Прочитайте еще раз весь текст. Перепишите и закончите следующие предложения.

1. The President of the United States ...

2. The President's policies ...

3. Each executive department...

4. The head of each department...

5. The head of each executive department is responsible

IV. Дайте письменные ответы на следующие вопросы.

1. How is the President of the USA elected?

2. Who must the President's policies be approved by?

3. What executive departments are there within the Executive Branch?

4. What is each executive department responsible for?

5. Who is the head of each department appointed and approved by?

Text 11

Immigration Laws in the USA

1. Some of the changes are known to have been brought about by changes in the immigration laws. Until the 1850s, immigration to the U.S. had been largely unrestricted, with some 90 percent of all immigrants coming from Europe. In the 1920s, a number of measures were taken to limit immigration, especially from Asian countries and southern and eastern Europe.

2. The overall number of immigrants was limited by law and quotas were set for countries and, later, «hemispheres'». In 1968, this quota system was abolished. An annual limit of 170,000 was set for immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere and 120,000 for the Western Hemisphere. Ten years later, the separate limits for the two hemispheres were abolished in favour of a worldwide limit of 290,000 per year. In addition, however, special measures were taken to allow large numbers of refugees from several regions (especially East Asia and Central and South America) to enter the U.S. Thus, the average number of immigrants legally admitted throughout the 1970s was about 430,000 per year. The number jumped to 654,000 in 1980, reflecting a new wave of Cuban refugees.

3. In recent years, the number of immigrants officially admitted to the U.S. was around 550,000 per year. The 1986 immigration law, while imposing stiff penalties on American businesses that employ illegal aliens, is noteworthy for its attempt to give legal status and citizenship to those illegal immigrants who are, in all but law, already Americans.

4. More than one and a half million more illegal immigrants from Mexico are estimated to be crossing into the United States each year.

5. It is not clear what effect a new immigration law, passed in 1986, will have on these “illegal aliens”. The law gives legal status to those who can prove that they have been in the U.S. since 1982. This would allow an estimated 1.5 million illegal aliens to qualify for citizenship. What is very clear is that the so-called European heritage of America is undergoing major change as more and more people from Latin America and from Asian countries enter U.S. society. Growing numbers of Americans will be able to say that they, or their parents or grandparents, came from these regions. As a consequence, the American view of the world is more likely to be towards the south and west.

6. Although the United States now accepts twice as many foreigners as all other nations combined, Congress is studying several proposals to limit immigration, including a new ceiling of about 450,000 immigrants a year. It is less clear what Congress will do about the problem of illegal immigrants. An estimated 500,000 to one million persons enter the United States illegally every year. Several congressmen have introduced legislation that would make it illegal for employers to knowingly hire an illegal alien. A company would face a heavy fine if convicted of hiring a person without proper papers. Many business groups and civil rights leaders oppose this proposal because they fear it would lead to wholesale discrimination against Hispanics and other recent immigrants.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4.

II. Выпишите из абзацев 5, 6 предложения с Participle I и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Письменно закончите предложения.

1. A new immigration law...

2. The so-called European heritage of America...

3. The United States now accepts...

4. Several congressmen...

5. A company would face a heavy fine if...

IV. Письменно дайте ответы на следующие вопросы:

1. How many immigrants does the United States accept?

2. How many immigrants does Russia accept?

3. What immigration laws were adopted in the United States?

4. What immigration laws were adopted in Russia?

5. How do the United States and Russia resolve the immigration problem?

Text 12

Immigration
Laws in the USA

1. The latest figures from the United States Immigration Service show that well over one million immigrants are now arriving in America every year. This is the highest number of newcomers to the United States since the mass migration of Europeans at the turn of the century.

2. The new immigrants no longer come mainly from Europe. According to the official government estimate, the greatest source of immigrants to America is now Asia, followed by Latin America. Forty-two percent of the new immigrants come from Asia while 39 percent come from Latin America. Only 13 percent of the recent immigration to America is now from Europe.

3. Although the United States now accepts twice as many foreigners as all other nations combined. Congress is studying several proposals to limit immigration, including a new ceiling of about 450,000 immigrants a year. It is less clear what Congress will do about the problem of illegal immigrants. An estimated 500,000 to one million persons enter the United States illegally every year. Several congressmen have introduced legislation that would make it illegal for employers to knowingly hire an illegal alien. A company would face a heavy fine if convicted of hiring a person without proper papers. Many business groups and civil rights leaders oppose this proposal because they fear it would lead to wholesale discrimination against Hispanics and other recent immigrants.

4. Where Americans came from and when they came, does not define how they see themselves today. It is interesting to see, though, how the immigration patterns have changed over time.

5. These changing patterns do affect, and have affected, what America is today and how Americans view the rest of the world.

6. Between 1861 and 1960, the majority of immigrants came from Europe. But during the past 25 years the largest share of immigrants has come from Latin America and Asia. In 1984, for iostance, 64,100 immigrants from Europe were legally admitted to the U.S. By contrast, legal immigration from the southen Americas (mainly Mexico, the West Indies, the Dominican Republic, and Colombia) was 193,500. An additional 256,300 legal immigrants came from Asia (mainly the Philippines, Vietnam, Korea, and China).

7. The millions of «de facto Americans» — and no one knows exactly how many there really are.

8. The Census Bureau estimates that there are some three to six million «illegal immigrants» already living in the U.S., about two-thirds of them from Mexico. It is also estimated that more than one and a half million more illegal immigrants from Mexico are presently crossing into the United States each year. It is not clear what effect a new immigration law, passed in 1986, will have on these “illegal aliens”. The law gives legal status to those who can prove that they have been in the U.S. since 1982. This would al­low an estimated 1.5 million illegal aliens to qualify for citizenship. What is very clear is that the so — called European heritage of America is undergoing a major change as more and more peo­ple from Latin America and from Asian countries enter U.S. Society. Growing numbers of Americans will be able to say that they, or their parents or grandparents, came from these regions. As a consequence, the American view of the world is more likely to be towards the south and west.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 6 предложения с Participle I и переведите их на русский язык.

III. Письменно закончите предложения.

1. At the turn of the century...

2. The Census Bureau...

3. The new immigration law of 1986...

4. Growing numbers of Americans...

5. The American view of the world...

IV. Письменно дайте ответы на следующие вопросы.

1. Where do immigrants come to the U.S. from?

2. What did the Census Bureau estimate?

3. What immigration laws were adopted in the U.S.?

4. What immigration laws were adopted in the Russian Federation?

5. How do the United States and the Russian Federation resolve the immigration problems?

Text 13

Crime in the USA

1. The crime rate in the U.S., which rose dramatically in the 1960s and 1970s, has gone down steadily since 1980. Department of Justice statistics show that serious crimes (murder, rape, robbery, etc.) declined 7 percent nationwide in 1983 and an additional percent the following year.

2. In some areas, for example in New York City, crime decreased 17 percent over a three-year period, with homicides and burglaries down by 10 percent. However, experts who had predicted a further decline were puzzled when FBI figures for 1985 showed an increase in violent crimes.

3. Public opinion polls show that Americans view crime as one of the most serious problems of their society. Several studies have also shown that the amount of crime, especially violent crime, is frequently overestimated. Experts believe that this awareness and fear of crime is largely caused by the great attention it is given in newspapers and on television, and also because violent crime is a popular theme for television series and films. Many Americans are therefore surprised to learn that, according to Interpol, the «general crime rate per 100,000 inhabitants» for the U.S. is significantly lower than that for several other western nations such as Sweden, New Zealand, or Denmark, and not much higher than those for West Germany, Austria, or England.

4. Nevertheless, among all crimes, murder makes the headlines, and there is no doubt that homicides continue to be a serious problem in America. The U.S. had a murder rate (per 100,000 inhabitants) of 8 in the mid-1980s, compared, for instance, with a rate of 7 for Canada, 5 for Sweden and West Germany, and 4 for Italy. It makes a difference, of course, where someone lives in America. The murder rates (in 1985) for states such as Texas (13.0), Florida (11.4), and Michigan (11.2) contrast with those for Minnesota (2.1), Iowa (1.9), South Dakota (1.8), and North Dakota (1.0). In some parts of the country, above all in decayed, inner-city areas, most people keep their doors locked and do not walk alone at night. In other parts, few people take such precautions.

5. In the United States, as elsewhere, the causes of serious crime are hotly debated and many reasons for it suggested. Among these are unemployment, drug-abuse, poverty, inadequate police enforcement, ineffective courts, racial discrimination, consumerism, television, and “a general decline in middle-class values”. Surprisingly, a major study of crime in the U.S. carried out by Northwestern University in 1982 found that “the number of poor people in a city is only marginally related to property or vio­lent crime”. In other words, American cities with a higher rate of unemployment and poverty do not necessarily also have a higher crime rate. Many experts believe only grass-roots efforts to im­prove community life overall and to have a lasting effect.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 5 предложение с инфинитивным оборотом «Сложное дополнение» и переведите его.

III. Письменно закончите предложения.

1. The crime rate in the United States of America...

2. In the United States, as elsewhere, the causes of crime...

3. A major study of crime in the U.S. ...

4. Many experts consider...

5. Department of Justice...

IV. Письменно дайте ответы на следующие вопросы.

1. How did the crime rate in the U.S. rise?

2. What do Department of Justice statistics show?

3. How did the crime rate in Russia rise?

4. What are the reasons of crimes in Russia and the USA?

5. What do Russian and American experts think about the crime rate in their countries?

Text 14

Crimes in the USA

1. In the United States, as elsewhere, the causes of serious crime are hotly debated and many reasons for it suggested. Among these are unemployment, drag-abuse, poverty, inadequate police enforcement, ineffective courts, racial discrimination, consumerism, television, and “a general decline in middle-class values”.

2. Surprisingly, a major study of crime in the U.S. carried out by Northwestern University in 1982 found that «the number of poor people in a city is only marginally related to property or violent crime.» In other words, American cities with a higher rate of unemployment and poverty do not necessarily also have a higher crime rate.

3. Many experts are coming to believe that only grass-roots efforts to improve community life overall will have a lasting effect. Many communities across the nation have started their own campaigns against crime, encouraging their citizens to participate in crime-prevention programs and to report crimes. Several civil rights groups actively support such “self-help” campaigns. In some neighborhoods, citizens participate in «neighborhood watch» programs and organize groups to patrol the streets.

4. Public opinion polls show that most Americans feel handguns are responsible for the high murder rate. A majority of Americans, some 70 percent, favor laws which would ban the private ownership of all handguns. At present, there are about 23,000 state and local gun laws and ordinances throughout the U.S. Some states only prohibit carrying concealed handguns: in others owners must register all handguns and have a license to carry them, either open or concealed. In some communities people are not allowed to own any handguns.

5. Although most Americans would like to forbid the owning of handguns, there is still no single federal law to that effect. Perhaps the major reason for this is the lobbying efforts of the National Rifle Association (NRA) and its three million members. They cite the Second Amendment to the Constitution (“... the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed”). They argue that about half of the some 120 million firearms in the U.S. are owned by hunters, and their slogan claims that «Guns don't kill, people do”.

6. Those in favor of a national law point out that the Second Amendment begins with the phrase “A well-regulated militia be­ing necessary to the security of a free state...” This goes back to the time when seven out of the original thirteen colonies required all males to serve in the state militias. When needed, men served as “citizen soldiers”. This, they conclude, is no longer the case, and the easy availability of guns simply leads to too many deaths. At present, a national law forbidding the ownership of all guns appears unlikely. However, more state and communities will probably pass their own much more restrictive laws in the future.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 4 предложение, в котором глагол — сказуемое стоит в сослагательном наклонении.

III. Письменно закончите предложения.

1. In the United States the causes of serious crime...

2. Public opinion polls...

3. A national law pointed out...

4. A national law...

5. Seven out of the original thirteen colonies...

IV. Письменно дайте ответы на следующие вопросы.

1. What are the causes of crimes in the U.S. and Russia?

2. Where are major studies of the U.S. crimes carried out?

3. Where are major studies of Russian crimes carried out?

4. Why were public opinion polls held in the U.S.?

5. How many states of the U.S. required all males to serve in the state militias?

Text 15

The Civil Rights

1. The Civil Rights Movement, which had fought its most bitter battles in the 1960s, also led to action and protest in many other areas.

2. Women who had taken part in many of the nationwide civil rights activities became more aware of, and involved in changing their own situation, and the biases and prejudices with which they were faced. On the average, they earned less than men. Their average educational level was lower, and in some cases they were discriminated against in both law (for example, divorce cases) and financial matters (for example, getting a loan).

3. The Constitution (in the 14th Amendment) might say that all “persons” had equal rights and protection under the law, but in practice, men were often “more equal”. Why, for example, were fewer women enrolled in the medical and law schools of the nation's universities? And why, for that matter, were women in the military usually found in secretarial or nursing roles?

4. Progress in many areas can only be judged state by state, for the states control such important areas as marriage and divorce laws, and most work legislation. Today about 10 percent of the all-volunteer military forces in the U.S. are women.

5. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) failed to be ratified by enough states, and many believe that some women did not really want full equality under the law. They feared, perhaps, 'that divorce laws which treated men and women equally would often leave women with the children and very little else. Others argue that the ERA failed because too many men used such fears as an excuse to protect their own interests.

6. Despite the failure of the ERA, the fact that many women are taking their convictions to court has had a deep effect not only on how women are being treated but also on the attention their demands have received.

7. Overall, two major trends can be seen. First, there are now more laws which specifically protect women against discrimination. As a result, there have been a large number of law suits in which women claim, for instance, that a man was given a position although a woman was equally or better qualified. During the last decade, career opportunities for women have markedly improved as a consequence.

8. Secondly, there has been a gradual, but general, improvement in how women are seen and treated in society. No one today, for example, seems surprised to see a woman driving a truck, working as a policeman, as a high school principal. Finally, the move to complete equal rights under the law has also led to a better understanding of some of the worst forms of sexual discrimination. For example, most American cities now have special health, psychiatric, and legal staff to aid in rape cases. Many support houses for abused women, and cases involving sexual harassment are being more actively prosecuted in many parts of the country.

9. Despite a series of recessions, the civilian labor force grew by 37 percent between 1970 and 1984. Between 1982 and 1985, more than 10 million new jobs were created. Reflected in these figures is a sharp rise in the proportion of women who work. In 1950, about two-thirds of American women were housewives: ten years later, about one-half were. More than two-thirds of the women between 25 and 44 are employed, and some 55 percent of married women with children work outside the home today. The proportion of women in the total labor force, presently about 44 percent, is expected to continue growing until the year 2000.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

II. Выпишите из абзаца 8 предложения, в которых встречаются слова, имеющие —
ing
окончания. Переведите их на русский язык.

III. Письменно закончите предложения.

1. The Civil Rights Movement...

2. The proposed Equal Rights Amendment...

3. There has been a gradual improvement in...

4. Most American cities have...

5. During the last decade, career opportunities for women...

IV. Письменно дайте ответы на следующие вопросы.

1. Why had women of many countries taken part in the nationwide civil rights activities?

2. What is the 14th
Amendment of the U.S. Constitution about?

3. Why did the proposed Equal Rights Amendment of the U.S. fail to be ratified?

4. Are there laws which specifically protect women against discrimination in the United States and the Russian Federation?

5. How is the problem of equal rights resolved in the United States and in the Russian Federation?

Text 16

International Court of Justice

1. The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. Its Statute is an integral part of the United Nations Charter.

2. The Court is open to the parties to its Statute, which automatically includes all Members of the United Nations. A State which is not a Member of the United Nations may become a party to the Statute on conditions determined in each case by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.

3. All countries which are parties to the Statute of the Court can be parties to cases before it. Other States can refer cases to it under conditions laid down by the Security Council. In addition, the Security Council may recommend that a legal dispute be referred to the Court.

4. Both the General Assembly and the Security Council can ask the Court for an advisory opinion on any legal question; other organs of the United Nations and the specialized agencies, when authorized by the General Assembly, can ask for advisory opinions on legal questions within the scope of their activities.

5. Jurisdiction. The jurisdiction of the Court covers all questions which States refer to it, and all matters provided for in the United Nations Charter or in treaties or conventions in force. States may bind themselves in advance to accept the jurisdiction of the Court in special cases, either by signing a treaty or convention which provides for reference to the Court or by making a special declaration to that effect. Such declarations accepting compulsory jurisdiction may exclude certain classes of cases.

6. In accordance with Article 38 of its Statute, the Court, in deciding disputes submitted to it, applies: international conventions establishing rules recognized by the

contesting States; international custom as evidence of a general practice accepted as law;

he general principles of law recognized by nations; and judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as a subsidiary means for determining the rules of law.

7. Membership. The Court consists of 15 Judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council, voting independently. They are chosen on the basis of their qualifications, not on the basis of nationality, and care is taken to ensure that the principal legal systems of the world are represented in the Court. No two Judges can be nationals of the same State. The Judges serve for a term of nine years and may be re-elected. They cannot engage in any other occupation during their term of office.

8. The Court normally sits in plenary, but it may also form smaller units called chambers if the parties so request. Judgments given by chambers are considered as rendered by the full Court. The seat of the Court is at the Hague.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.

II. Напишите 10 вопросов по тексту.

III. Напишите изложение на английском языке «International Court of Justice».

Text 17

European Legislation

1. Ever since it joined the European Union, Britain has been subject to Community legislation. This legislation has increased since 1986, when the Single European Act provided for the crea­tion of the Single European Market. This established ground rules for the free movement of goods, services, people and capital across the whole Union. In the 1990s the Treaties of Maastricht and Amsterdam have further amended the scope and form of European legislation.

EU Institutions

2. The Council of Ministers, the Commission and the European Parliament are the EU's three legislative organs. The main decision-making body is the Council, which consists of one Govern­ment Minister from each member .state. When, for instance, farming matters are being discussed, the UK's Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food attends with his or her European counterparts; if it is pollution control, the Secretary of State for the Environment, Transport and the Regions.

3. The Commission is the executive of the European Union. It implements the Council's decisions, initiates EU legislation and ensures that member states put it into effect. Each of the twenty Commissioners, who are drawn from all the member states (there are two from the UK), is responsible for a specific policy area, e.g. agriculture and rural development, transport. The Commissioners are entirely independent of their countries, and serve the EU as a whole.

3. The European Parliament plays an increasingly important role in the EU legislative process. It is directly elected every five years by voters in all the member states and has 626 members (MEPs), including 87 from the United Kingdom. The EU budget cannot be agreed without the consent of the European Parliament. In other areas of legislation its role varies between consultation where it can influence but does not have the final say in the content of legislation; the cooperation and assent procedures, where its influence is greater; and codecision, where a proposal requires the agreement of both the Council and the European Parliament. The codecision procedure, where the Parliament's influence is greatest, was introduced by the Maastricht Treaty. The number of areas where it applies has been increased by the Treaty of Amsterdam.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3.

II. Напишите 10 вопросов по тексту.

III. Напишите изложение на английском языке «European Legislation».

Text 18

The Federal Judiciary in the U.S.

1. From the Bill of Rights Americans receive guarantees of such basic rights as free speech, freedom of the press and religion, the right to petition the government for redress of grievances, freedom from unreasonable search and seizure, freedom of assembly, the right to trial by jury and just compensation for property taken for the public good. Since the Bill of Rights was adopted, 16 other amendments have been added to the Constitution. But the Constitution is more than the total of written provisions and formal amendments. It is a document that has evolved and changed dramatically over 200 years, one that remains vital, alive and still controversial today.

2. Under the Constitution the third branch of government, in addition to the legislative (Congress) and executive (President) branches, is the federal judiciary. Its main instrument is the Supreme Court, which watches over the other two branches. It determines whether or not their laws and acts are in accordance with the Constitution.

3. Congress has the power to fix the number of judges sitting on the Court, but it cannot change the powers given to the Supreme Court by the Constitution itself. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and eight associate justices. They are nominated by the President but must be approved by the Senate.

4. Once approved, they hold office as Supreme Court Justices for life. A decision of the Supreme Court cannot be appealed to any other court. Neither the President nor Congress can change their decisions. In addition to the Supreme Court, Congress has established 11 federal courts of appeal and, below them, 91 federal district courts.

5. The Supreme Court has direct jurisdiction in only two kinds of cases: those involving foreign diplomats and those in which a state is a party. All other cases which reach the Court are appeals from lower courts. The Supreme Court chooses which of these it will hear. Most of the cases involve the interpretation of the Constitution.

6. The Supreme Court also has the «power of judicial review», that is, it has the right to declare laws and actions of the federal, state, and local governments unconstitutional. While not stated in the Constitution, this power was established over time.

7. The Constitution provides for three main branches of government which are separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are carefully balanced by the powers of the other two.

8. Each branch serves as a check on the others. This is to keep any branch from gaining too much power or from misusing its powers. The equal branches of government are connected and each is dependent on the other two.

9. In the U.S. when people think of «the government», they usually mean the entire system, that is, the Executive Branch and the President, Congress, and the courts. In fact and in practice, therefore, the President (i.e. ”the Administration”) is not as powerful as many people outside the U.S. seem to think he is. In comparison with other leaders in systems where the majority party forms «the government», he is much less so.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7.

II. Напишите 10 вопросов по тексту.

III. Напишите изложение на английском языке “The Federal Judiciary in the U.S.”.

Text 19

Justice and
Law in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

1. Although Britain is a unitary state, it does not have a single system of law. England and Wales, and Northern Ireland, have similar systems but the Scottish system is somewhat different. In general, however, the law has no complete code. Its sources include parliamentary legislation, European Community law and much 'common' law from courts' decisions and elsewhere. Criminal law is concerned with wrongs against the community as a whole, civil law with the rights and duties of individuals among themselves.

2. Keeping the peace and bringing offenders to trial are primarily the concern of the police whose action depends on common consent since the number of officers is small in relation to the population (roughly one to every 400 people). The police are not normally armed and their powers are carefully limited. Strict procedures govern the way complaints against the police are handled. Special efforts are being made to improve relations between the police and the community, especially in inner city areas!

3. The police service consists of independent local forces, usually linked with local government, and each responsible for its own area.

4. Most prosecutions are initiated by the police, but in Scotland the police make the preliminary investigations and a public prosecutor decides whether or not to prosecute. As soon as anyone is arrested he or she must be charged and brought to court with the minimum of delay. Unless the case is serious, the arrested person is usually granted bail if he or she cannot quickly be brought to court.

5. Compensation may be paid to victims of violent crime and people hurt while trying to prevent offences.

6. Judges are independent and non-political and, except for lay magistrates who try less serious criminal cases, are appointed from practicing barristers, advocates or solicitors (see below).

7. Criminal trials take place in open court although there are some restrictions, such as those to protect children. The more serious cases take place before a jury of ordinary, independent citizens who decide on guilt or innocence. People accused of crimes are presumed innocent until proved guilty, and every possible step is taken to deny the prosecution any advantage over the defence.

8. Cases involving children are heard in special juvenile courts, or, in Scotland, at informal children's hearings.

9. Other than in cases of murder, for which the sentence is life imprisonment, courts can choose the penalty most appropriate for a particular offender.

10. The legal profession has two branches: solicitors and barristers (advocates in Scotland). Solicitors undertake legal business for lay clients, while barristers advise on problems submitted through solicitors and present cases in the higher courts.

11. People with little money are given help to meet the costs of legal advice and court proceedings.

I. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст. Перепишите и письменно переведите абзацы 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

II. Напишите 10 вопросов по тексту.

Ш. Напишите изложение на английском языке «Justice and law in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland».

Text 20

Development of English Law in Australia and New Zealand

1. In Australia and New Zealand there are two principal sources of law: case law and legislation. Other sources (custom, ecclesiastical law and mercantile law) are of importance only in specialized areas of law.

2. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries a body of law, developed in the centralized system of courts of the king and his Council, replaced the customary local laws which applied in the regions. This law was known as the common law and the courts as common law courts.

3. The making of law by legislation presupposes the existence of a parliament or legislative body. There was no such body by the thirteenth century but legislative instruments during Norman times were made by the king with the consent of his chief advisers. They were probably regarded as no different from the decisions of a judicial character which were also made by the king in person or in Council.

4. Legislation in parliamentary form was unknown until around the end of the thirteenth century. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, meetings of the king's Council, when it included representatives of the shires and boroughs, began to be known as “Parliament”.

5. Although representatives were not elected and it was regarded as comparatively unimportant, it did make statutes. The king also produced legislative documents in the form of ordinances and proclamations, and in some cases made proclamations under power delegated to him by parliament. The earliest example of a statute empowering such delegated legislation dates from 1385.

6. It was not until the second half of the seventeenth century that the distinction between the two principal law — making institutions, Parliament and the courts, became complete. At the same time, as a result of the constitutional battles of the period, Parliament's supremacy over the king and his courts was estab­lished.

7. The law which was received into Australia and New Zealand is sometimes referred to as the common law. The term «common law», as well as meaning the system of law which developed in the king's courts, has been extended to mean the system of law which developed in England. In this context it comprises both statute and case law. Those countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, which derive their legal systems from England are known as common law countries.

8. The courts of Australia and New Zealand have accepted, though not unanimously, that both countries were settled rather than acquired by cession or conquest (although the facts of history as they are now understood throw doubt upon this conclusion). As a result, under the common law, the colonists brought so much of the legislation and case law of England as was applicable to the social, political and institutional structures of Australia and New Zealand. Although it has been argued that the indigenous people of both countries retained certain rights at common law to continue to use their customary law among themselves and to continue to use and occupy the land, in general these rights have not been accepted by the courts of Australia and New Zealand. The courts and parliaments established in the colonies continued to develop this inherited body of law.

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Text 21

Voting and Government in Great Britain

Great Britain is a monarchy, but the Queen of Great Britain is not absolute, but constitutional. Her powers are limited by Parliament.

When once a party has won a majority of votes, it forms the Government, and may hold office for five years, unless it is defeated by the Opposition on some important Bill, or unless it decides to have another general election.

The Opposition criticizes or directly opposes the Bills introduced by the Government. If they succeed in defeating the Government on any important Bill, or carry a vote of “No confidence” in the Government, the latter resigns and the Queen calls upon the leader of the Opposition to form a new Government.

On election day, having decided which candidate is in their opinion the best one, the voters go to polling-station and record their votes by placing a cross against their candidate's name on a printed slip of paper, which they place in the ballot-box.

All day long people are going to the poll to record their votes until the evening, when the election officials count up the numbers of votes and announce the elected candidate.

Text 22

Interpol (International Criminal Police Organization)

What is an «International criminal»? It is not a new type of wrongdoer. The term is simply one of practical convenience. For example, if a man kills a woman in London and then escapes in the USA, he becomes an «International criminal». If the term were based on some legal concept, we should recognize the existence of such a thing as international crime.

At the beginning of the 20th
century it was necessary that the international organization should be created to combat crime and to exchange ideas and methods between the police forces in the world. It came into being under the name of the International Criminal Police Commission in 1923 and worked until the beginning of World War II.

In 1946 the old members of the ICPC which had been disrupted by the war met in Belgium to revive the organization. In 1956 it was renamed the “International Criminal Police Organization-Interpol”.

The general aims of Interpol are defined in its Constitution. The combating of International criminals within the limits of laws existing in different countries is divided into three distinct activities: the exchange of police information, the identification of wanted or suspected by the police, the arrest of those who are wanted.

Text 23

Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin was a man of many identities: printer, writer, statesman, inventor, thinker, and revolutionary. He was the only American to have signed the four major documents which shaped the American republic: the Declaration of Independence (1776); the Treaty of Alliance with France which joined America and France together in the war against England (1778): the Treaty of Paris signed by England and America which ended the Revolu­tionary War (1783): and the Constitution of the United States (1788).

Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1706, the fifteenth child of a poor maker of candles and soap. His parents emi­grated from England in 1683. After attempting to work for his brother's Boston newspaper, young Franklin moved to Philadelphia where he became one of the leading printers of pamphlets and money in colonial America.

When he wasn't busy at his business, he spent his free time trying to improve the quality of life in America. He is credited with having conducted important experiments on the nature of electricity. He designed a more efficient stove for heating houses (later called the Franklin stove). He co-founded the first lending library in the United States. He invented bifocal glasses and the lightning rod a device which lessens the impact of a building being hit by lightning.

One of Franklin's most famous publications was Poor Richard's Almanac, a calendar filled with useful information as well as Gatchy proverbs which have become a part of the American iden­tity. “A penny saved is a penny earned”. “The sleeping fox catches no poultry”. “Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise”. “There are no gains without pains”. “Lost time is never found again”. These sayings have been passed down from generation to generation by Americans.

During the Revolutionary War, Franklin played an important role as statesman to France. When he was not active in colonial politics, Franklin was in Paris making sure that France sided with America in its war for independence. He represented America's interests to the French, and as a result, the Treaty of Alliance was signed in 1778.

Americans best remember Benjamin Franklin as the foremost example of the self-made man. Born in poverty, Franklin became one of the most significant colonial Americans. He helped to shape the direction of American democracy and gave his energy and time to a young nation. Franklin best symbolizes for Americans what a person can be if he or she works hard and is determined and dedicated. Benjamin Franklin is America's first and most famous «rags to riches» story.

Text 24

Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)

Jefferson had an abundance of talents and interests. Once, while travelling in Virginia, it was said, he stopped at a country inn and got into conversation with a stranger. The stranger men­tioned some mechanical operations he had seen recently, and Jef­ferson's knowledge of the subject convinced him that Jefferson was an engineer. Then they got to talking about agriculture, and the stranger decided that Jefferson was a farmer. More talk led the stranger to believe that Jefferson was a lawyer; then a physician. Finally the topic of religion was broached, and the stranger con­cluded that Jefferson was a clergyman, though he wasn't sure of what denomination. The following day he asked the landlord the name of the tall man he had engaged in conversation the night be­fore. “What”, said the landlord, “don't you know the Squire? That was Mr. Jefferson”. “Not President Jefferson?” exclaimed the stranger. “Yes”, nodded the landlord, “President Jefferson!”

Text 25

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933-1945)

One of Roosevelt's first orders after becoming President was that if people in trouble telephoned the White House for help, someone on his staff was to talk to them and figure out some way of providing assistance. After Roosevelt's death, his wife Eleanor received many letters from people telling her how in the worst days of the Great Depression they had called the President and received immediate help. When civil works projects for putting the unemployed to work were being set up, someone brought to Roosevelt's attention the plight of artists who were out of work and suggested including them in the program. “Why not?” was Roosevelt's response. “They are human beings. They have to live. I guess the only thing they can do is paint and surely there must be some public place where paintings are wanted”. Years later, painter George Biddle had this to say: “You know, it is strange. Roosevelt has almost no taste or judgment about painting, and I don't think he gets much enjoyment out of it: yet he has done more for painters in this country than anybody else ever did — not only by feeding them when they were down and out; but by estab­lishing the idea that paintings are a good thing to have around, and that artists are important”.

Like other Presidents who exerted forceful leadership at critical junctures in American history, Roosevelt was the recipient of both passionate adoration and blind hatred. Roosevelt jokes — and jokes about his wife, Eleanor, who was always on the go — abounded. Some of them Roosevelt enjoyed; others he regarded as beneath contempt. His favorite cartoon showed a little girl running to tell her mother standing in front of a fashionable home: “Look, mama, Wilfred wrote a bad work!” The word on the sidewalk was “Roosevelt”. And his favorite story was about the commuter from Westchester County, a Republican stronghold, who always walked into his station, handed the newspaper boy a quarter, picked up the «New York Herald Tribune», and then handed it back as he rushed out to catch his train- Finally the newsboy, unable to contain his curiosity any longer, asked his customer why he only glanced at the front page. “I'm interested in the obituary notices”, the man told him. “But they're way over on page twenty-four, and you never look at them”, said the boy. “Boy”, said the man, “the son of a bitch I'm interested it will be on page one!”

Campaigning for re-election in 1936, Roosevelt had to prepare a speech to deliver in Pittsburgh. Four years earlier he had spoken there advocating drastic government economy. Now he wanted to defend government spending. He asked his adviser to figure out some way of making this about-face without appearing too incon­sistent. The adviser thought it over for a few days and finally told him: “I think, Mr. President, that 1 have found a way out”. “What is it, Sam?» asked Roosevelt eagerly. “Deny that you made a speech in Pittsburgh in 1932”.

Text 26

John F. Kennedy (1961-1963)

When John F. Kennedy took the oath of office on January 20, 1961, he was, at forty-three, the youngest man ever elected presi­dent. He was also one of the wittiest.

Kennedy served in the navy during World War П. He was proud of his war record but never bragged about it. “Mr. Presi­dent”, a high school boy once asked him, “how did you become a war hero?” “It was absolutely involuntary”, Kennedy responded. “They sank my boat”.

When the torpedo boat he commanded was wrecked by a Japanese destroyer in the South Pacific in August 1943, not only did he keep up the spirits of the survivors by his own playful exu­berance but also saved the life of one man who was wounded by seizing the end of his life jacket in his teeth and towing him to an island three miles away. It was several days before Kennedy and his crew were rescued, and they suffered severely from lack of food and water during that period. Then they were rescued and he wrote to a friend: “...I went to see the Doc about some coral in­fections I got. He asked me how I got them — I said, 'Swimming.' He then burst out with: Kennedy, you know swimming is forbidden in this area, stay out of the goddamned water!' So now it's an official order...”

In June 1961 Kennedy left Vienna after his meeting with Khrushchev with increased concern about American-Russian ten­sions; but he never gave up his hope that with patience and deter­mination he could make progress toward a better understanding between the two nations. As he told Khrushchev: “The journey of a thousand miles begins with one step”. While he was President he frequently said: “All I want them to say about me is what1
they said about John Adams, 'He kept the peace'”.

And in the speech he had intended to give in Dallas on November 22, 1963, the day of his assassination, he declared: “We ask ... that we may be worthy of our power and responsibility, that we may achieve in our time and for all time the ancient vision of 'peace on earth, goodwill toward men'”.

(Abridgedfrom “Presidential Anecdotes”)

The true rule in determining to embrace or reject anything is not whether it has any evil in it, but whether it has more of evil than of good. There are few things wholly evil or wholly good. Almost everything, especially of government policy, is an inseparable compound policy of the two, so that our best judgment of the preponderance between them is continually demanded. (Abraham Lincoln)

Comment on the following quotations

“There is nothing that takes place at home of any great importance — if it is a difficult problem, at least — that is not caused by or at least colored by some foreign consideration”.

(President Eisenhower)

“The very idea of the power and the right of the People to establish Government, presupposes the duty of every individual to obey the established Government”.

(George Washington)

“In politics, if you want someone to make a speech, ask a man. If you want something done, ask a woman”.

(Margaret Thatcher)

“It is easy to fool yourself. It is possible to fool the people you work for. It is more difficult to fool the people you work with. But it is almost impossible to fool the people who work under you”.

(Harry B. Thayer)

Text 27

My Meetings with General Grant

Mark Twain

The first time I ever saw General Grant was early in his first term as President. I had just arrived in Washington — a stranger, and wholly unknown to the public — and was passing the White House one morning, when I met a friend, a senator from Nevada. He asked me if I would like to see the President. I said I should be glad; so we entered. I supposed that the President would be in the midst of a crowd, and that I could look at him in peace and secu­rity from a distance.

But before I knew it, the Senator and I were in the presence; and there was none there but we three. General Grant got slowly up from his table, put his pen down, and stood before me with the iron expression of a man who had not smiled for seven years, and was not going to smile for another seven. He looked me steadily in the eyes; mine lost confidence and fell. I had never confronted a great man before, and was in a dreadful state of inefficiency. The Senator said: “Mr. President, may I have the privilege of introducing Mr. Clemens?”

The President gave my hand an unsympathetic wag and dropped it. He did not say a word, but just stood. In my trouble I could not think of anything to say. There was an awkward pause, a horrible pause. Then I looked up into that unsmiling face and said timidly: “Mr. President, I — I am embarrassed, are you?”

His face broke, just a little — the momentary flicker of a smile seven years ahead of time; and I was out and gone as soon as it was.

Ten years passed away before I saw him the second time. Mean-tuoe I had become a notorious person, and was one of the people ap-Pointed to respond to toasts at a banquet given to General Grant in t-hicago when he came back from his tour around the world.

I arrived late at night and got up late in the morning. All the cor­ridors of the hotel were crowded with people waiting to get a glimpse of General Grant when he should pass to the place whence he was to review the great procession. I worked my way through packed drawing-rooms, and at the corner of the house I found a window open where there was a platform decorated with flags and carpets. I stepped out on it, and saw below me millions of people blocking all the streets, and other millions caked together in all the windows and on all the house-tops around. These masses took me for General Grant, and broke into volcanic explosions of cheers. But it was a good place to see the procession and I stayed.

Presently I heard the distant blare of military music, and far up the street I saw the procession come in sight.

And now General Grant, arm-in-arm with the Mayor of Chi­cago, stepped out on the platform. General Grant was looking ex­actly as he had looked upon that trying occasion of ten years be­fore, all iron self-possession. The Mayor came over and led me to the General and formally introduced me. Before I could put together the proper remark, General Grant said:

«Mr. Clemens, I am not embarrassed, are you?» and that little seven-year-old smile twinkled across his face again.

President's day

President's Day is celebrated in February to honor two of the US greatest presidents, Abraham Lincoln and George Washington. The holiday is celebrated in the United States on the third Monday in February.

Gorge Washington was born on February 22, 1732. When he was born, America was not a country yet. It belonged to England, a country across the ocean. People in America didn't want to belong to England so they fought a war to become a separate coun­try. George Washington was an American general in the war. America won the war and picked a new name for itself: The United States of America. George Washington was elected to be its first President.

A legend is told- about George Washington as a boy. Young George had a new hatchet and with it he cut down a small cherry tree. When his father saw the tree, he was angry. ‘George”, he said... “Did you do that?” George was afraid to admit that he did.

Nevertheless, the boy decided to tell the truth. “Yes, Father”, he said, “I cut down the cherry tree with my hatchet. I cannot tell a lie”. George Washington's father was proud of George for tell­ing the truth.

Abraham Lincoln was born on February 12 in 1809. Things were different then. When Abe was a boy, he lived in a log cabin. – A log cabin is a small house made out of logs cut from trees. His father cut down the trees and made the cabin.

There were no electric lights in the cabin because electricity hadn't been invented yet. Young Abe read books by firelight and drew with charcoal on a shovel. Abe's family was poor. Often he went barefoot because he didn't have any shoes.

Then Abraham Lincoln grew up, he studied hard and became a lawyer. Then he was elected to be a lawmaker. In 1861, Abraham Lincoln became the 16th
President of the United States.

In Their Own Words the Presidency & Power

“The President cannot make clouds to rain and cannot make the corn to grow, he cannot make business good; although when these things occur, political parties do claim some credit for the good things that have happened in this way”.

William Howard Toft, 1916

“There must be, not a balance of power, but a community of power. Not organized rivalries, but an organized common реасе”.

Woodrow Wilson, 1917

“Frankly, being President is rather an unattractive business unless one relishes the exercise of power. That is a thing which «as never greatly appealed to me”.

Warren Harding, 1921

“I suppose I am the most powerful man in the world, but great power doesn't mean much except great limitations”.

Calvin Coolidge, 1926

“Presidents do make mistakes, but the immortal Dante tells us that divine justice weighs the sins of the cold-blooded and the sins of the warm-hearted on different scales”.

“I should like to have it said of my first Administration that in the forces of selfishness and of lust for power met their match... I should like to have it said of my second Administration that in it these forces met their master”.

Franklin Roosevelt, 1936

“In the past, those who foolishly sought power by riding the back of the tiger ended up inside”.

JohnF. Kennedy, 1961

“You know, the President of the United States is not a magician who can wave a wand or sign a paper that will instantly end a war, cure a recession, or make a bureaucracy disappear”.

Gerald Ford, 1976

“I have a lot of problems on my shoulders but, strangely enough, I feel better as they pile up. My main concern is propping up the people around me who tend to panic, and who might possi­bly have a better picture of the situation than I do”.

Jimmy Carter, 1980

Text 28

Winston Churchill

One of the greatest statesmen who led Great Britain to victory in the Second World War was Sir Winston Churchill, a man of inexhaustible energy, a historian, a veteran of war and master of politics. He was an intense patriot and believed in his country's greatness and its historic role in Europe and in the world.

Winston Churchill was born on November 30, 1874 at Blenheim Palace, Oxfordshire. After graduation from the Royal B4ilitary College at Sandhurst, the young officer wanted to make his mark. He left for Cuba. He spent there a couple of months reporting the Cuban war of independence from Spain. Later his regiment went to India where he was both soldier and journalist. He also reported the South African War. Within a month after bis arrival in South Africa he won fame for his part in rescuing an armoured train and for his success in escaping from a Boer prison camp. He returned to Britain as a military hero. In 1990 he entered politics as a Conservative and won a seat in Parlia­ment.

у In the years that followed his government and political posts alternated with military ones. He remained outside the Govern­ment from 1929 to 1939, but he continued to hold a seat in Parliament and repeatedly warned of the menace of Nazi Germany.

On September 3, 1939 Great Britain declared war on Germany. Winston Churchilll was reappointed to the Admirality, in­stalled as prime minister and later took over the Ministry of De­fence. When he faced the House of Commons for the first time as prime minister, he warned of the hard road ahead. “I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat”, he said. He an­nounced his policy — “to wage war by sea, land and air” and Proclaimed one aim — “victory at all costs, victory however Wig and hard the road may be”. The Commons gave him their enanimous vote of confidence.

While the Battle of Britain raged, Winston Churchill was everywhere — at military headquarters, inspecting coastal defences, anti-aircraft batteries, visiting scenes of bomb damage, smoking his cigar, giving his “V” sign and broadcasting frank reports to the nation. He was also the perfect personification of the people he led.

With military success in 1945 came political problems. Churchill's Conservative Party failed in the postwar period, but he led it back to office in 1951 and remained prime minister until 1955 when ill health forced him to resign.

He found pleasure in 'writing. The most important are his two masterpieces “The Second World War” and “A History of English Speaking Peoples”. He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953.

In 1964 Churchill's health declined and his public appearances became rare. His death at his London home on January 24, 1965 was followed by a state funeral at which almost the whole world paid tribute. He was buried in the family grave in Blandon churchyard, Oxfordshire.

Text 29

British Police System

There are about 60,000 police officers, men and women, in England, Wales and Scotland, excluding London. They all have , the same rates of pay and the same conditions of service, and all are subject to the same code of discipline. All are engaged in the enforcement of the law, the preservation of life and property, and the prevention of crime. Each of them has to take the same personal oath of loyalty to the Crown, in whose service they are; and each one, whatever his or her rank, has virtually the same power and authority under the law.

Yet they form not one police force but many. For there are 155 different police forces in the country, varying in size from sixteen in Scotland to over 3,000 in Lancashire and 20,000 in the Metro­politan Police District. Each of these forces is a separate body, independent of the others, and each operates only within its own area, under the command of its Chief Constable, and is administered by its own local police authority.

From the point of view of organization and operation, there is little difference between a county police force and a borough police force, but there is a difference between the police authorities in the two types. The police authority of a county force is known as the Standing Joint Committee and is composed of justices of the peace elected at quarter sessions, and county councillors elected by the county council, in equal numbers. The police authority of a borough force is known as the Watch Committee, and consists of borough councillors elected by the borough council. In the case of combined police forces, the usual pattern is that the police authorities of the constituent forces elect members to form a combined police author-%»in proportion to the populations concerned.

The powers and responsibilities of Standing Joint Committees d combined police authorities differ from those of Watch Committees in certain matters.

Although the local police authority is responsible for the administration and maintenance of its force, the central government nevertheless plays an important part. And it is the Home Secretary who is generally responsible to Parliament for the maintenance of law and order throughout the country as a whole.

Although he has no responsibility for the actual operations of individual forces, he must see that they are efficient. This he does in three ways. In the first place he makes regulations, with the approval of Parliament, governing the pay and conditions of service of all police officers and establishing their code of discipline. In the second place, his department maintains certain common services for the benefit of all forces in such matters as training, radio-telephony and scientific investigation. And in the third place, he maintains control over the establishments of the forces, their efficiency and standards of housing and accommodation, through an inspectorate.

Text 30

English Criminal Law

Criminal Law is that part of the law of the land which is concerned with crimes. The English criminal law has never been reduced to a single code but many particular topics have been codified by separate statutes, for example, the Larceny Act (1916), which deals with various forms of theft and related offences such as fraudulent conversion and the offences against the Person Act (1861), which covers many forms of assault and personal violence. Criminal statutes call for judicial interpretation, just as a comprehensive criminal code would do, and authoritative rulings by the courts on the meaning of statutes are as much part of the criminal law as are the statutes themselves.

A crime, according to the doctrine of the Common Law, is made up of an outward act and the state of mind of the criminal. He must have a guilty mind or mens rea, in addition to committing the physical act which is forbidden. This doctrine of mens rea is still of importance, particularly in some Common Law crimes, but in many statutory crimes it has ceased to be of much significance. Every crime, it may be said, has its own kind of guilty mind. This clearly exists if the intention is to commit the criminal act, knowing it to be such, But every person is taken to intend the probable consequences of his act and so a person who treats another so violently that he jumps out of a window to escape and is killed by the fall is guilty of murder. Sometimes mens rea may take the form of negligence or mental inadvertence, as in manslaughter by neglect. Then the men­tal state must be proved to exist, as in the crime of burglary. In the case of murder the necessary mens rea is expressed by the phrase «malice aforethought». This phrase does not imply that murder can be committed only if it is premeditated. Nor need malice in the ordinary sense of spite or ill-will be present in the mind of the murderer. An act is said in the criminal law to be done maliciously if it is done intentionally without a just cause for excuse.