Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации
Федеральное агентство по образованию
Государственное образовательное учреждение
высшего профессионального образования
«РОСТОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»
Кафедра английского языка естественных факультетов
МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ
по развитию навыков перевода текстов
по специальности
для студентов
естественных факультетов университета
Ростов-на-Дону
2006
Методические указания разработаны ст. преп. кафедры английского языка Беляевой Н.А., преп. Блиновой А.С., преп. Самолетовой М.А., преп. Погосовой Ю.А.
Рецензент: ст. преп. Петросян К.С.
Печатается в соответствии с решением кафедры английского языка естественных факультетов ГОУ ВПО «РГУ», протокол № 3 от 17 ноября 2006 г.
Методическая записка
Настоящие методические указания направлены на развитие грамматических навыков перевода текстов общенаучного содержания и предназначены для самостоятельной работы студентов естественных факультетов по закреплению основных грамматических тем.
Материал данного УМК также может быть использован при аудиторной работе в группах студентов 3-4 курсов естественных факультетов университета, при проведении занятий со студентами элективных курсов и студентами заочного отделения.
Цель данной работы – помочь студентам овладеть грамматическим материалом на примере общенаучной лексики и применять полученные навыки при переводе текстов по специальности.
Методические указания содержат 5 разделов:
“ Passive Voice”
“ Infinitive”,
“ Participle”,
“ Gerund”,
“ Conditional sentences”.
Каждый раздел включает в себя теоретические сведения по теме, а также различные виды упражнений на закрепление навыков перевода.
Изучение представленных разделов может осуществляться последовательно или выборочно в зависимости от целей и задач обучения группы.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
Read and translate the following statements paying attention to the underlined words.
1. What is written
without effort is
in general read
without pleasure. (S. Johnson).
2. Genius must be found
, and never can be taught
. (J. Dryden).
3. Peace cannot be kept
by force. It can
only be achieved
by understanding.
(A. Einstain).
В английском языке два залога: действительный (The Active Voice) и страдательный (The Passive Voice).
Глагол в действительном залоге обозначает действие, производимое подлежащим.
He presented
these data in Fig. 2. (Он представил
эти данные на рис. 2).
Глагол в страдательном залоге обозначает действие, которое производится над подлежащим.
These data were presented
in Fig. 2. (Эти данные были представлены
на рис. 2).
Времена страдательного залога образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола to
be
в соответствующем времени действительного залога и причастия прошедшего времени (Past Participle) основного глагола.
| Indefinite |
Continuous |
Perfect |
Perfect-Continuous |
|
| be + V3 |
be being + V3 |
have been + V3 |
- |
|
| Present |
am is invented are изобретают всегда/ обычно/ каждый день |
am is being invented are изобретают сейчас/ все еще |
have been invented has уже изобрели (результат) |
форма Present Perfect-Continuous в страдательном залоге не употребляется, вместо нее используется Present Perfect Passive |
| Past |
was invented were изобрели вчера/ в прошлом году |
was being invented were изобретали, когда я приехал |
had been invented был изобретен прежде, чем я приехал |
форма Past Perfect-Continuous в страдательном залоге не употребляется, вместо нее используется Past Perfect Passive |
| Future |
shall be invented will будет изобретен завтра/ в будущем году/ скоро |
Future Continuous в страдательном залоге не используется, вместо него употребляется форма Future Indefinite Passive |
shall have been invented will будет изобретен к январю |
форма Future Perfect-Continuous в страдательном залоге не используется |
После модальных глаголов
используется инфинитив без частицы to
в страдательном залоге: be taken, be discussed и т.д.
It must be
done
. - Это нужно сделать.
It can be
done
. - Это можно сделать.
Производитель действия, представленного глаголом-сказуемым в страдательном залоге, выражается предложным дополнением с предлогом by
или with
. Дополнение с предлогом by
выражает действующее лицо
или действующую силу
, а дополнение с предлогом with
– предмет, с помощью которого осуществляется действие. Например:
The advantage of this technique was recognized by
many
scientists
. -Преимущество этого метода признавалось многими учеными
.
Drying process is effected with
pumps
. - Процесс осушения осуществляется с помощью насосов
.
Вопросительная форма
в страдательном залоге образуется путем переноса (первого) вспомогательного глагола
перед подлежащим.
Are
the rays being brought into a focus? - Лучи сейчас фокусируются?
В специальных вопросах вспомогательный глагол
ставится после вопросительного слова.
Who was
the device invented by? - Кем было изобретено это устройство?
Отрицательная форма
образуется при помощи частицы not
,
которая ставится после вспомогательного глагола
:
A new substance will
not
be formed at this temperature. - При данной температуре новое вещество не образуется.
Перевод глаголов
в страдательном залоге на русский язык осуществляется несколькими способами:
1) Глаголом «быть» + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога:
The variable was
computed
. -
Эта переменная (величина) была вычислена
на машине.
2) Глаголом с частицей –
ся (- сь):
This problem was
discussed
last week. - Эта проблема обсуждалась
на прошлой неделе.
3) Неопределенно-личным оборотом типа «говорят», «сказали» и т.п.:
English is
spoken
in many countries. - На английском говорят
во многих
странах.
4) Глаголом в действительном залоге
(при наличии исполнителядействия):
Mathematics is loved
by many. - Математику любят многие.
EXERCISES
Exercise 1
Define the forms of the Passive Voice and translate the following sentences into Russian.
1. Mathematics is loved by many, disliked by a few, admired and respected by all. 2. The treatment of this theory was modified. 3. The medicine will be tested next month. 4. This phenomenon has been dealt with by several researchers. 5. A number of examples of radiation had been given before the law was formulated. 6. By the end of the experiment these rays will have been absorbed by the block. 7. Various alternatives of the problem are being investigated. 8. In the first electric battery electricity was being released as a result of the chemical changes. 9. Many important problems can be solved by our scientists. 10. Automation is often referred to as a new subject and its various aspects have not yet been paid adequate attention to.
Exercise 2
Change the following sentences according to the model (using the Passive Voice).
Model: They provided our laboratory with up-to-date equipment.
Our laboratory was provided with up-to-date equipment.
1. The students greeted the famous lecturer warmly. 2. They have recently built a huge laboratory in the University. 3. We must make the experiment by tomorrow. 4. They spoke much about the research work at the conference. 5. The scientists were viewing the screen through a microscope. 6. It will destroy electrical balance. 7. He has just measured the diameter. 8. She always shows us a lot of experiments. 9. I am solving the task now. 10. By that time he will have got necessary information. 11. The experimenter placed the body between the plates. 12. They are reversing the path of the particles now. 13. Why have you changed the direction? 14. Who discovered the circulation of blood?
Exercise 3
Open the brackets using the Passive Voice.
1. Scientific expedition (to send) to the Antarctic continent next month. 2. X-rays usually (use) by the doctors to reveal the illnesses. 3. You (to show) the experiment last time. 4. The amount of the substance (to increase) gradually now. 5. Since the discovery of this element the by-products (to use) for hundreds of things. 6 At the time we came automatically operated chambers (to make) the measurements of the altitude. 7. By the end of the century the age of the Earth (to determine). 8. What (to study) in your lab now? 9. The silhouettes of the crystals (to see) on the photographic plates before you come to the end of the experiment. 10. It must (to do) in time.
Exercise 4
Read the text and translate it into Russian. Underline the Passive Voice.
Research that is directed toward the solution of problems can be divided into two major classes: evaluative and developmental. An evaluative problem is one in which the alternative courses of action are completely specified in advance and the solution consists of selecting the "best" of these. A developmental problem is concerned with the search for instruments which yield a course of action that is better than any available at the time.
In discussing the phases of research we shall consider each of the types of research that have been identified and explore their methodological differences and similarities. But the basis of these comparisons will be laid throughout by a detailed consideration of evaluative problem solving.
As it will be seen in some detail, applied research has the advantage of being able to formulate criteria of its own efficiency in terms of the objectives for which the problem is being investigated. Because of lack of specific objectives, in pure research such criteria cannot be formulated as explicitly and many implicit assumptions are made about the conditions under which its results will be applied. In applied research these assumptions are frequently found to be unrealistic.
INFINITIVE
Read and translate the following
statements paying attention to the underlined
words.
1. To be
a materialist means to accept
the primacy of matter.
2. Learn to walk
before you run.
3. To live
long it is necessary to live
slowly. (M. T. Cicero).
4. Some people are too proud to admit
that they don’t know.
Инфинитив - неличная форма глагола, которая называет действие в наиболее общем виде, но не указывает лицо, число и наклонение. Формальным признаком инфинитива является частица to, которая иногда опускается. Инфинитив считается основной формой глагола и представляет его в словаре. В русском языке инфинитиву соответствует неопределенная форма глагола, отвечающая на вопросы что делать? что сделать?
Инфинитив имеет формы времени и залога:
| ACTIVE |
PASSIVE |
Выражает действие: |
|
| Indefinite
|
to produce |
to be produced |
Одновременное с действием |
| Continuous |
to be producing |
глагола - сказуемого |
|
| Perfect |
to have produced |
to have been produced |
Предшествующее действию глагола- сказуемого |
| Perfect Continuous |
to have been producing |
(переводятся прошедшим временем) |
1.1) During the years of World War II our plants managed to produce
more ammunition.
Во время Второй мировой войны наши заводы сумели произвести
больше
боеприпасов.
1.2) More goods of a better quality are to be produced
in the nearest future.
Больше товаров лучшего качества должно быть произведено
в ближайшем
будущем.
2) The plant is known to be producing
a great variety of articles.
Известно, что завод производит
большое количество разнообразных изделий
3.1) The plant is known to have produced
arms during the war. Известно, что завод производил
оружие во время войны.
3.2) This equipment is known to have been produced
at a famous plant.
Известно, что это оборудование было произведено
на знаменитом заводе.
4) The plant is known to have been producing
this excellent equipment for many years.
Известно, что завод производит
это отличное оборудование уже много лет.
Инфинитив, являясь неличной формой глагола, имеет свойства как существительного, так и глагола.
Инфинитив в предложении может выполнять функции
подлежащего, дополнения, обстоятельства, определения, а также может быть именной частью составного сказуемого:
1) – подлежащее
То
build
good roads is one of the most important tasks facing the engineers. - Строительство хороших дорог - одна из наиболее важных задач, стоящих перед инженерами.
То
test
the air balloon was very important. Было очень важно испытать воздушный шар.
2) –
дополнение
Не likes to
solve
difficult
problems
. -
Ему нравится решать сложные задачи.
Не decided to test the air balloon
. –
Он решил испытать воздушный шар.
3) –
именная часть сказуемого
His task was to
complete
the work in time. - Его задача была в том, чтобы завершить работу вовремя.
His plan was to test the air balloon
. -
Его план заключался в том,
чтобы испытать воздушный шар.
4) –
обстоятельство цели
This computer was developed to calculate complex equations.- Он остановился, чтобы передохнуть.
То
test
the air balloon he needed very accurate measuring instruments. - Для того, чтобы испытать воздушный шар, ему были нужны очень точные измерительные приборы.
5) –
определение
The balloon to
test
was very large.
- Шар, который нужно было испытать, был очень большим.
A thermometer is an instrument to
measure
the temperature. - Термометр - это инструмент для измерения температуры (который измеряет температуру)
Если определение выражено инфинитивом в пассивной форме, то на русский язык оно переводится придаточным определительным предложением с оттенком
долженствования:
The texts to
be
typed
today are on your desk. - Тексты, которые следует напечатать сегодня, на вашем столе.
Инфинитив может входить в состав сложного дополнения
(объектный инфинитивный оборот)
и сложного подлежащего
(
субъектный инфинитивный оборот)
ОБЪЕКТНЫЙ ИНФИНИТИВНЫЙ ОБОРОТ
(THE OBJECT INFINITIVE CONSTRACTION)
«Объектный инфинитивный оборот»
представляет собой сочетание имени существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже с инфинитивом глагола: I want him
(
Peter
)
to
work
at this problem with us.
«Объектный инфинитивный оборот»
имеет два элемента: 1) имя (существительное или местоимение), обозначающее лицо или предмет, которое совершает действие, 2) инфинитив, выражающий действие, совершаемое лицом или предметом. Поэтому «Объектный инфинитивный оборот»
переводится на русский язык придаточным дополнительным предложением, вводимыми союзами что, чтобы, как: I expect that she will come tomorrow.
I expect her
to
come
tomorrow.
Основные случаи употребления «Объектного инфинитивного оборота»:
1) желание или потребность: to want, to wish, to desire, I would like
He wants me to help
him. Он хочет, чтобы я помог ему. I would like you to translate
this article.Я бы хотел, чтобы ты перевел эту статью.
2)
предположение, мнение, суждение: to suppose,
to expect, to consider, to assume, to prove, to believe, to understand, to think.
I consider this liquid to be
flammable.
Я считаю, что эта жидкость огнеопасна.
They expect the equipment to arrive
tonight. Они ожидают, что оборудование прибудет вечером.
3)
физическое восприятие и ощущение (без частицы to): to watch, to observe, to notice, to see, to hear, to feel
They did not notice him appear
in the world scientific society two years ago.
Они и
не заметили, как он появился в мировом научном сообществе два года назад.
4)
знание, осведомленность, утверждение, констатацию факта: to
note
,
to
find
,
to
claim
,
to
state
We found this method to be
obsolete. Мы обнаружили, что этот метод устарел.
5)
принуждение, разрешение или запрет:
to make, to cause, to force, to allow, to permit, to order, to command, to enable.
The chief engineer ordered the new engine to be tested
. Главный инженер
приказал провести испытания нового двигателя.
Complex Object
(The Objective Infinitive Construction)
I Define the forms and the functions of the Objective Infinitive Construction and translate the following sentences into Russian.
1. The scientists considered atoms or molecules which contain an even number of electrons to have no magnetic moment.
2. They supposed that gas to be oxygen.
3. We thought this substance to have liberated heat when the temperature had been greatly raised.
4. This scientist expects laser light to be different from ordinary light.
5. The researchers proved this substance to be an element.
6. After a number of experiments they made substance dissolve.
7. We knew them to have finished their work.
8. We may suppose these particles to be in motion.
9. They found him to be an outstanding inventor.
10. The chief engineer allowed the new engine to be tested.
11. They waited for the reaction to stop.
12. I arrange for him to meet the professor.
II Change the following sentences according to the model (using Objective Infinitive Construction):
1) We expect that they will solve this problem very soon
.
We expect them to solve this problem very soon.
2) I thought that he had returned
.
I thought him to have returned
.
1. The scientists know that this phenomenon is important
.
2. They suppose that she will take part in this work
.
3. We consider that he knows the subject well
.
4. The scientists know that isotopes find wide application both in industry and agriculture
.
5. They expect the reaction will go to completion
.
6. We think that he will help us in this work
.
7. We believe that this discovery is of great importance
.
8. We consider that mercuric irons are colorless
.
9. We knew that the delegation had arrived
.
10. They learned that he had carried out the experiment by the end of the week
.
11. They expected that he had passed his last exam well
.
12. We expect that his research findings will appear
in print soon.
III Complete the sentences using the Objective Infinitive Constructions of your own:
1. We believe cybernetics to …
2. We thought this young scientist to …
3. The engineer expected the work to …
4. The teacher does not consider him to …
5. He wanted us to …
6. The chief engineer supposes this bridge…
7. He didn’t hear the boy…
8. The professor allowed this new method…
IV Read the text and translate. Underline infinitive constructions:
Isaac Newton is considered to be one of the greatest scientists of all time. We believe the majority of people to know his famous laws of mechanics. When most people think of Isaac Newton, they think of him sitting under an apple tree observing an apple fall to the ground. But we know him to express the connection between force and motion in the form of several laws. He also proved the planets to revolve around the Sun, not the Earth as people thought at the time. Isaac Newton was one of the world’s greatest scientists because he took his ideas and the ideas of earlier scientists and combined them into a unified picture of how the universe works. Isaac Newton’s calculations changed the way people understood it. What he did was to explain how it worked with the help of mathematics.
СУБЪЕКТНЫЙ ИНФИНИТИВНЫЙ ОБОРОТ
(THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRACTION)
Неопределенно-личным предложениям русского языка чаще всего в английском языке соответствуют пассивные обороты, как например: It
is
said
that
…
It is reported that… It was supposed that… (
Говорят
,
что
…
Сообщают, что… Предполагалось, что)
Сложноподчиненное предложение с главным предложением, выраженным неопределенно-личным оборотом типа it
is
said
,
it
is
known
,
it
seems
,
it
is
likely
,
имеет свой эквивалент – простое предложение, в которое входит особая конструкция «Субъектный инфинитивный оборот
». Эта конструкция, выраженная существительным в общем падеже или местоимением в именительном падеже с инфинитивом, переводится на русский язык придаточным предложением:
It is said that they work on new invention Говорят, что они работают
They are said to work
on new invention над новым изобретением
«
Субъектный
инфинитивный
оборот
»
употребляется с глаголами, обозначающими знание, утверждение, физическое восприятие, просьбу, наказание, которые могут стоять в любом времени в страдательном залоге, а именно с глаголами: to say, to know, to think, to report, to suppose, to expect, to consider, to assume, to believe, to see, to hear.
He was considered to have
a strong affinity for both chemistry and mathematics.
Считалось, что он испытывал острый интерес как к химии, так и к математике. They were
reported
to
have
arrived
to
the
conference
. Сообщалось, что они уже прибыли на конференцию.
«Субъектный инфинитивный оборот»
употребляется также в сочетании с некоторыми непереходными глаголами, которые могут стоять в действительном залоге, а именно с глаголами: to
seem
,
to
appear
,
to
prove
,
to
turn
out
,
to
happen
.
This young lecturer seems to know
his subject well. Кажется, этот молодой лектор хорошо знает свой предмет.
Complex Subject
(The Subjective Infinitive Construction)
I Define the forms and the functions of the Subjective Infinitive Constructions and translate them into Russian:
1. The science of chemistry is known to deal with substances.
2. Every crystal has been found to consist of atoms arranged in a three – dimensional pattern.
3. Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen is known to have discovered a new kind of rays which he called X-rays.
4. Helium atom was stated to contain two electrons.
5. The substance concerned is supposed to have been prepared by the reaction of some metals with water.
6. Whenever the speed of a body changes, the body is said to have acceleration.
7. The computer is proved to be able to do computation in milliseconds.
8. The new fuel is assumed to be both cheap and efficient.
9. Many various types of airplanes are reported to have been produced in this country during the last decade.
10. They are said to have designed а new device.
11. These measures are known to increase the efficiency of work.
12. The question should be considered to be settled.
II Paraphrase the following sentences using the Subjective Infinitive Constructions as in the models:
Model I: It is known that he will make his report today. He
is known to make
his report today.
1. It is believed that the method involved is good.
2. It is expected that they will take part in this research work.
3. It is known that evaporation goes more rapidly at the higher temperature.
4. It was known even in ancient times that water is denser than air.
Model II: It was found that those rays had been deflected. Those rays
were found to have been deflected.
1. It was known that the substance had been purified.
2. It was considered that the method had been improved.
3. It was known that the investigations carried out by him had resulted in new
discoveries.
4. It is believed that they have examined this substance carefully.
Model III: He has graduated from the Institute. I know it.
He is known to have graduated
from the Institute.
1. M. Curie discovered radium. Everybody knows that.
2. He has finished his work. They said to us about it.
3. They work in the laboratory. We know that.
4. The meeting will take place in our club. We were informed about it.
III Complete the sentences using the Subjective Infinitive Construction and word combinations of your own:
1. The lecture was said to …
2. These two scientists were heard to …
3. The 20th century is considered to …
4. Rubber is known to …
5. Lake Baikal is known to …
6. The conference is reported to…
7. This university is expected to
8. Each type of atom is known to…
IV Read the text and translate. Underline infinitive constructions.
An electric circuit is a path through which an electric current flows. This is a complete path along which electrons can transmit their charges. An electric’s circuit includes a battery, generator, or magnetic means for producing current flow. Some portion of the circuit is supposed to do useful work.
The circuit is said to be open when no charges can move due to a break in the path. The circ
Not all substances are good conductors of electricity, as a general rule metals prove to be good conductors of electricity, whereas nonmetals are poor conductors. The poorest of conductors are commonly called insulators or nonconductors. There are a large number of substances that are neither good conductors of electricity nor good insulators. These substances are called semi-conductors.
Participle
Read and translate the following statements paying attention to the underlined words.
1. Concealed
talent brings no reputation (D. Erasmus).
2. A thing well said
will be wise in all languages (J. Dryden).
3. One cannot shut one’s eyes to things not seen
with eyes (Ch. Morgan).
Причастие - неличная форма глагола, имеющая признаки прилагательного и глагола.
| Active |
Passive |
||
| Participle 1 |
building |
being built |
Выражает действие, одновременное с действием глагола- сказуемого. |
| Participle 2 |
built |
Выражает действие, одновременное с действием глагола- сказуемого или предшествует ему. |
|
| Perfect Participle |
having built |
having been built |
Выражает действие, предшествующее действию глагола- сказуемого. |
1) Compressing
gas we turn it into liquid. –
Сжимая газ, мы превращаем его в жидкость.
2) The bridge being built
across the river is going to be tested. – Мост, строящийся через реку, вскоре будет тестироваться.
3) The energy used per second is proportional to the frequency. – Энергия, затраченная в одну секунду, пропорциональна частоте.
4) Having finished the experiment, the students left the laboratory. – Закончив эксперимент, студенты ушли из лаборатории.
5) Having been fixed by the troubleshooting team, the pump continued to work. – После того, как аварийная бригада отремонтировала насос, он вновь стал работать.
Причастие в предложении может выполнять функции
обстоятельства, определения, части сказуемого.
- обстоятельства
When given
time to think, he always answered well. - Когда он получал время подумать, он всегда отвечал хорошо.
-
определение
The article discussed
at the lesson yesterday deals with the problem of geology. - Статья, которую вчера обсуждали на уроке, имеет отношение к проблеме геологии.
- часть сказуемого
This article has
been
discussed
just now. - Статью только что обсудили.
Причастие может входить в состав оборота
« Объектный падеж с причастием»
Объектный причастный оборот состоит из существительного в общем падеже (или местоимения объектном падеже) и причастия. Вся конструкция выполняет в предложении функцию сложного дополнения и часто переводится на русский язык придаточным предложением, вводимым союзом «как».
They observed the objects falling down
from the top of the tower. – Они видели, как предметы падали с вершины башни.
Объектный причастный оборот обычно употребляется после глаголов физического восприятия: to see, to hear, to feel,to watch, to observe, to find, to notice и соответствуют русскому придаточному предложению, причем причастие нельзя переводить обособленно, т.к. оно – неотъемлемая часть оборота.
He watched the
part
cooling
during the process. – Он наблюдал, как деталь охлаждалась во время процесса.
Перевод оборота возможен как простым, так и сложным предложением.
They watched the new plant started
. – Они наблюдали, как запускали новый завод./ Они наблюдали запуск нового завода.
They got the
projects
endorsed
. – Они добились, чтобы проект был утвержден./ Они добились утверждения проекта.
Причастные обороты, в которых причастие имеет свое собственное подлежащее, выраженное существительным в общем падеже ( реже местоимением в им. падеже), называются самостоятельными причастными
оборотами.
(The Independent Participle Construction).
Такие обороты не соответствуют русским деепричастным оборотам, т.к. русское деепричастие всегда выражает действие, относящееся к подлежащему предложения. Самостоятельные причастные обороты соответствуют в русском языке придаточным предложениям
(времени, причины или сопутствующих обстоятельств) или самостоятельным предложениям.
Examples:
1) The speed of light being extremely great (= as the speed of light is extremely great), we cannot measure it by ordinary methods. – Так как скорость света очень велика, мы не можем измерить ее обычными методами.
2) The Professor being ill (= as the Professor was ill), the lecture was put off. – Так как профессор был болен, лекцию отложили.
3) The southern part of the country being protected by mountains (= as the southern part of the country is protected by mountains), the climate is mild.
I Define the forms and functions of the participles and translate the following sentences into Russian.
1) A positively charged participle having the mass of the electron was discovered in 1932.
2) Being opened to navigation throughout the year, the Black Sea offers an excellent route to the lands of the Mediterranean.
3) The process involved aims at production of heavy water.
4) His the purpose of this chapter to discuss the general principles involved in the operation of electronic devices.
5) This discovery followed by many experiments was of great use to chemists.
6) The man spoken of was the first to discover this phenomenon.
7) Seawater contains every natural element known.
8) Having compared these two equations they could continue their experiments.
9) While working to isolate polonium, the Curies discovered a second radioactive element, calling it “radium”.
10) Certain alloys containing manganese, aluminum and copper are magnetic.
II Change the following sentences according to the model.
Model:
I felt tired. I stopped at a motel to rest.
Feeling tired I stopped at a motel to rest.
1. The lecturer was speaking on the problem of space research. The lecturer presented some diagram.
2. He had done the work. We decided to check up the data.
3. I knew that the mountains were dangerous. I took a guide.
4. He found the door open. He had a look into the room.
5. They robbed the mail train. They looked for a place to hide the money.
6. The particles penetrate the atmosphere. The particles cause ionization.
7. When they had finished their work, they left the lab.
8. The piece of ice was placed in the water. It began to melt.
9. The students are making experiment. They should know the theory well.
III Find the sentences containing the Independent Participle Construction.
1) Bringing in this example they will be able to prove their prediction.
2) The temperature of an object being raised, the velocity of electrons increases.
3) The sun being near the zenith, its rays are nearly vertical.
4) A magnetic field surrounds a current – carrying wire, its strength decreasing as the distance from the wire surface increases.
5) North America is a low platform rising above the sea.
6) Having accepted this concept we could continue our research.
7) The television camera picks up the image being televised.
8) Our work having been completed, he made a report at the scientific conference.
9) Non – metallic materials are of great importance, some of them being widely used in place of metals.
10) Containing little or no mineral matter, rainwater contains dissolved gases.
IV Read the text and translate it into Russian. Underline participles.
The radiation dose given off by an X – ray machine or by isotopes is usually measured by determining the number of ions produced in a volume of gas. Since these carry an electric charge there are a number of extremely delicate methods by which they can be detected. The widely used Geiger counter consists essentially of a wire stretched inside a cylindrical tube, so arranged that an electric current can pass between the wire and the tube only when there are ions in the gas. Consequently, when an ionizing particle passes through the tube, an electric signal is given out. In this way the number of ionizing particles given off by a radio – active source can be accurately counted. This is called the activity of the material. It is measured in a unit called the curie after the discoverer of radium. The activity of one gram of radium together with its decay products is equal to one curie. Every time an atom disintegrates a beta – or alpha – ray is given off, together with a certain amount of gamma radiation.
Gerund
Read and translate the following statements paying attention to the underlined words.
1. Reading
is to the mind what exercise is to the body (R. Steele).
2. Saying
is one thing and doing
is another.
3. Research is searching
without what you are going to find.
4. Learning
without thought is labour lost, thought without learning
is perilous
(Confucius).
5. Submitting
to one wrong brings on another.
Герундий – неличная форма глагола, имеющая признаки как существительного, так и глагола. В русском языке соответствующие формы отсутствуют.
Имеет формы времени и залога
| Active |
Passive |
Выражает действие: |
|
| Indefinite |
reading |
being read |
Одновременное с действием глагола- сказуемого или относящиеся к будущему |
| Perfect |
having read |
having been read |
Предшествующее действию глагола- сказуемого |
1) He is/was interested in collecting
rare minerals. – Он интересуется, /интересовался коллекционированием редких минералов.
2) Computers gain an ever increasing application due to their being
constantly improved
.
– Компьютеры получают все более широкое применение благодаря тому, что их непрерывно совершенствуют.
3) Rontgen’s having
discovered
X-rays contributed much to world’s science. – То, что Рентген открыл рентгеновские лучи, было большим вкладом в мировую науку.
4) We learned of his experiment having been finished
successfully. – Мы узнали о том, что его опыт был успешно завершен.
Герундий в предложении может выполнять функции
любого члена предложения, кроме простого сказуемого:
- подлежащее
Reading
scientific books is important for every specialist. – Чтение научной литературы важно для каждого специалиста.
- часть составного именного сказуемого
The main point of a transformer is providing
the change of voltage. – Главным назначением трансформатора является обеспечение изменения напряжения.
- часть составного глагольного сказуемого
Bubbles of gas begin appearing
above each electrode. – Пузырьки газа начинают появляться над каждым электродом.
- дополнение (прямое)
An elevated temperature favours setting.
– Повышение температуры благоприятствует осаждению.
- дополнение (предложное)
The experiment resulted in obtaining
valuable data. – В результате эксперимента были получены ценные данные.
- определение
The capacity for
doing
work a moving body possesses is called the kinetic energy of a given body. – Способность выполнять работу, которой обладает движущееся тело, называется кинетической энергией данного тела.
-обстоятельство
In moving
about molecules make repeated collisions with their neighbors – перемещаясь с места на место, молекулы все время сталкиваются друг с другом.
Герундий в сочетании с притяжательным местоимением или существительным (или неопределенным местоимением) в притяжательном падеже может образовывать герундиальную конструкцию
, которая по значению близка к придаточному предложению и на русский язык переводится также придаточным предложением:
D.
I
Mendeleyev’
s
having
discovered
the Periodic Law made a revolution in chemistry. - То, что Менделеев открыл Периодическую систему, совершило революцию в химии. /Открытие Менделеевым Периодической системы совершило революцию в химии.
Герундий от причастия отличается:
1) по функции в предложении
(герундий может быть любым членом
предложения (кроме простого сказуемого), причастие – только
обстоятельством, определением, частью сказуемого);
2) по наличию предлога
(перед причастием обычно стоят союзы when и while, а перед герундием предлоги on (upon), after, without, by, in, before, with, of, for.
3) по наличию перед герундием притяжательного местоимения или
существительного в притяжательном или общем падеже.
Examples: 1) Forecasting
the weather with great accuracy is no easy matter. -
Предсказание погоды с большой точностью – нелегкое дело.
2) The students insisted on being helped
in this work. -
Студенты настаивали на том, чтобы им помогли в этой работе.
3) We know of Mendeleyev’s having discovered
the Periodic Law. –
Мы знаем, что Менделеев открыл Периодическую систему.
I Define the forms and functions of the gerund and translate the following sentences into Russian.
1) You should avoid changing the direction of your further investigation.
2) Astronomers get a fairly good idea of the chemical composition of the Universe by studying the light from the stars and the sun.
3) Performing the first operation made possible further steps.
4) This effective result is determined by studying the structure of molecules and crystals.
5) Coal is carbonaceous mineral matter that generally is consolidated as a result of being buried in the earth.
6) We must consider trying this idea in our experiment.
7) We cannot agree to testing the new method without being given additional time.
8) I remember having seen an article on this subject.
9) Iron cobalt and nickel are the only metals possessing considerable magnetism at low temperature.
10) Chemical metallurgy includes the metallurgical processes involving chemical change.
II Translate the sentences according to the model.
Model: Henry Becquerel’s having discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity resulted in many investigations in this field – То, что Т. Бенкерель открыл явление радиоактивности, привело ко многим открытиям в этой области.
1. We can speak of this object’s serving as a model of the Earth.
2. His having proved the advantages of the new system is essential.
3. We know of the Earth’s revolving around the sun constantly.
4. Your having carried out this work under this professor supervision helped you greatly in your research.
5. Everybody knows of Newton’s having done research in the field of gravitation.
6. Euclid’s having brought all the known facts about geometry into a logical sequence was very important for the development of geometry.
7. We know of Lobachevsky; s having developed a new geometry different from that of Euclid.
8. He knew of your problem having been discussed at the last conference.
III Complete the sentences using the gerund and word combinations of your own:
1. They have recently succeeded in …
2. They prevented us from …
3. The experiment is worth …
4. This reaction results in …
5. The property largely depends on …
6. He insisted on …
7. It is no use …
8. He stopped …
IV Translate the following sentences and define the underlined forms (participle or gerund) and their functions:
1. Carrying
tanks of compressed air we can swim down to the depths of about 300 feet.
2. Carrying
tanks of compressed air to the depth of about 300 feet is a difficult task.
3. Obtaining
oil from undersea fields is no simple matter.
1. Obtaining
oil from undersea fields they used new methods and modern equipment.
2. After having studied
hundreds of sections of rocks we may learn the extent of the area over which a bed was deposited.
3. Having reached
the depth of 15000 feet they began the examination of the drill cuttings.
4. One method of obtaining
salt is allowing
water to evaporate.
5. Mapping
has made great advance in the last 20 years.
6. Within the last few years, oceanographers have developed a system for forecasting
wave conditions in the North Atlantic.
7. The Great Northern Expedition succeeded in exploring
and mapping
the northern coast of Europe and Asia from the White Sea to Kamchatka.
8. Wind direction may be determined quite simple by watching
the movements of clouds, smoke or waves on water surfaces.
9. The purpose of this furnace is changing
iron ore into iron.
V Read the text and translate it into Russian. Underline gerund.
Is killing an animal morally equivalent to killing a human being?
Most of us never question assumption that human beings have the right to kill animals. We eat them as food, we use their skins to make coats and shoes, and we test drugs and cosmetics on them. Some of us even hunt animals for sport. With our growing awareness of environmental issues, these activities are becoming less acceptable. Deliberate and cruel killing of animals is not a new phenomenon. The people of the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic have probably undertaken their annual cull of pilot whales for centuries. The cull is a sporting tradition, similar to bullfighting in Spain or fox hunting in Britain. Fewer and fewer people believe that cruelty to animals for sport is justified particularly when the animal is an endangered species. Shooting tigers in India was once a popular sport for gentlemen; it is now illegal. Killing rare animals for economic gain (poaching
) is another environmental problem.
Conditional sentences
Read and translate the following statements paying attention to the underlined words.
1. If you want
to change the man’s mind, work
on changing his assumptions.
2. If you make
people think they’re thinking they will love
you; but if you
really
make
them think they will hate
you.
Сложные предложения, в которых одно простое предложение подчинено другому и соединено с ним подчинительными союзами, если, если не, при условии, если, при условии что
, называются “условными предложениями”.
Союзы, вводящие условные предложнения: If, in case, unless, but for, providing, on condition.
Типы условных предложений
1 тип
Выражают: реальные, осуществимые предположения.
Относятся: чаще всего к будущему, а также к настоящему
Переводятся: предложениями с глаголом в изъявительном наклонении
| Придаточное предложение (условие) |
Главное предложение (следствие) |
| a) Present Indefinite |
will |
| b)should + infinitive без to (для всех лиц) |
will |
| Выражает меньшую вероятность |
|
| c) will + infinitive без to |
will |
| will служит для выражения просьбы |
|
| d) Present Indefinite |
Глагол в повелительном наклонении |
Examples: a) I’ll give you the book on condition you return it next week.
b) If Pr. Petrov should come I will ask him to show you this experiment.
c) If you will come to the conference we will be grateful.
d) If you see Pr. Petrov ask him to ring me.
2 тип
Выражают: невероятные или маловероятные предположения.
Относятся: к настоящему или будущему времени
Переводятся: предложениями в сослагательном наклонении (прошедшее время + бы)
| Придаточное предложение |
Главное предложение |
| a) Past Indefinite |
would + infinitive без to |
| b) was/ were |
would + infinitive без to |
| c) would + infinitive без to |
would + infinitive без to |
| would – для выражения просьбы |
Examples: a) If I knew this problem I would write a term paper.
b) If Pr. Petrov were here he would help us to make this experiment.
c) If you would send us a letter we would be grateful.
3 тип
Выражают: невыполнимые предположения.
Относятся: к прошедшему времени
Переводятся: предложениями с глаголом в сослагательном наклонении (прошедшее время + бы)
| Придаточное предложение |
Главное предложение |
| Past Perfect |
world + Perfect infinitive без to |
Example: Had there been a nuclear power industry at that time it would be unnecessary to enrich the raw uranium.
Иногда условие может относиться к прошедшему времени, а следствие к настоящему или будущему, или наоборот. Тогда мы имеем ”смешанный
” тип условного предложения.
Examples: If you had
worked
harder last year, you would
know
English well now. – Если бы в прошлом году ты больше занимался, то сейчас знал бы английский лучше.
Условие – в прошедшем, следствие – в настоящем.
If he knew
English well he would have translated
the article without difficulty yesterday. - Если бы ты хорошо знал английский, то вчера перевел бы статью без проблем.
Условие – в настоящем, следствие – в прошедшем.
Если в придаточных предложениях условия имеются глаголы had,
were,
could,
might,
should
союзы могут опускаться, а перечисленные глаголы ставятся перед подлежащим. При переводе на русский язык союз восстанавливается.
Example: Had
conditions permitted the geologists would have applied aerial prospecting. – Если бы позволили условия, геологи провели бы разведку с воздуха.
I Read and translate the following sentences. Pay attention to different types of real and unreal condition.
1) If he were at the laboratory now he would make a practical on inorganic chemistry.
2) If he had been to the lab yesterday he would have made a practical on inorganic chemistry.
3) If the air is warmed it will rise and expand.
4) If he were to accept some theory now he would accept the atomic theory.
5) If the theory had been presented in a simple manner I wouldn’t have made a mistake.
6) Trees will not thrive in dry regions unless they grow along the banks of streams.
7) The scientists had to verify the hypothesis. If they had enough knowledge about atoms they would have accepted it as a fact.
8) Were the earth - spheroid a homogeneous ball, the value of gravity would be the same for all points in the same latitude.
II Change the sentences according to the model.
Model: The scientists don’t get necessary results, because they don’t use new
method. – In case the scientists use new method, they will get necessary results.
1) The gas molecules don’t fall to the bottom of a container under the force of gravity, because they are in motion.
2) I made a mistake, because I didn’t know this theorem.
3) He didn’t get his examination last year, because he didn’t study properly.
4) He will finish the experiment, because he will work hard.
5) The student doesn’t study the problem, because he is not interested in it.
6) Hydrogen is not being used as the base of atomic weights. It doesn’t require changes of all atomic weights.
7) There is definite order in the way in which atoms of different elements combine to form the molecules and crystals of compounds, so it is not necessary for us to memorize one by one the formulas of thousands of substances.
8) The axis of rotation is not perpendicular to the plane of the orbit in which the earth revolves around the sun, so day and night are not of equal length at all places and at all seasons.
III Open the brackets.
1) You will pass your examination if you (to work) hard.
2) You will succeed if you (to do) as I tell you.
3) The volume of a given weight of a gas could be calculated directly from the perfect gas equation if the molecular weight (to be known)
4) You would have passed the examination if you (to work) hard.
5) It should be expected to show a nearly uniform change in density from the surface downward if the earth (to be composed of) the same material from the surface downward.
6) They would have got the necessary results if they (to study) the problem better.
7) It would have been better if you (to make) the experiment yourself.
8) This theorem would have been greeted with disagreement and disbelief if it (to be proved) in an earlier age.
IV Read the text and translate it into Russian. Underline conditional sentences.
… It is known that the interior of the earth is hot. The temperature of the earth’s crust increases steadily downward. The average increase is about 1°C per 100 feet. Very little is known of the temperatures within the earth. Most of the earth is essentially solid. If, by compression or by radioactivity, parts of the earth become molten, it is probable that some of this hot material rises toward the surface and carries heat with it.
If the earth were made of the same material from the surface downward, its density should vary with the pressure and presumably its elasticity and rigidity would vary approximately with the pressure. This evidently is not the case, however, for the rate at which earthquake waves are transmitted changes very irregularly with depth. At a depth of 60 miles the rate of increase of speed falls off and at a depth of about 1,600 kilometers the velocity of earthquake waves becomes about uniform.
If the earth were composed of the same material from the surface downward, for example of granite, it should be expected to snow a nearly uniform change in density from the surface downward; because it does not do so, it is reasonable to suppose that the nature of the material changes, and it is supposed that the earth is made up of zones of material of different composition.