Методические указания Специальность 190701: «Организация перевозок и управление на транспорте (водном)» Новосибирск 2009

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ТРАНСПОРТА РОССИЙСКОЙ ФЕДЕРАЦИИ

ФГОУ ВПО «НОВОСИБИРСКАЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННАЯ АКАДЕМИЯ ВОДНОГО ТРАНСПОРТА»

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Д
151

Т.А. Далецкая

БАЗОВЫЙ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНЫЙ
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Методические указания

Специальность 190701: «Организация перевозок
и управление на транспорте (водном)»

Новосибирск 2009

НГ4 ВТ

УДК 802.0(07):656.62.072 Д 151

Далецкая Т.А.
Базовый профессиональный язык: методические указания. - Новосибирск: Новосиб. гос. акад. вод. трансп., 2009. -
175с.

Данные методические указания предназначены для студентов 3 и 4 курсов обучающихся по специальности «Организация перевозок и управление на транспорте» заочного факультета. Указания составлены для организации работы студентов-заочников в межсессионный период и в период лабораторно-экзаменационной сессии. Данные указания включают: пояснительную записку, контрольные работы № 3 и №4 разговорные темы, предусмотренные программой 3-4 курсов, и тексты для внеаудиторного чтения, а также для работы на практических занятиях

государственная академия водного

транспорта», 2009

ЧАСТЬ 1 ПОЯСНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ЗАПИСКА

♦
Данные методические указания составлены для организации работы студентов-заочников НГАВТ по изучению дисциплины «базовый профессиональный английский язык» в межсессионный период (до начала лабораторно-экзаменационной сессии) и в период лабораторно-экзаменационной сессии. Пособие адресовано студентам 3-4 специальности 190701 «Организация перевозок и управление на транспорте(водном)».

• Курс разработан на кафедре иностранных языков и входит в учебный план НГАВТ.

• Курс ориентирован на государственный стандарт.

• Курс направлен на самостоятельное изучение иностранного языка на базе программы средней школы.

• Курс имеет практико-ориентированный характер: для студентов проводится одна установочная лекция, на которой обсуждается учебная программа и планируется их будущая самостоятельная деятельность. В дальнейшем проводятся 12 часов занятий в период лабораторно-экзаменационной сессии, предлагаются консультации по программе обучения.

• Оценка знаний и умений студентов проводится в соответствии с целями в виде зачета на 3 курсе и экзамена на 4 курсе.

♦ Структура и содержание 3 курса

Курс рассчитан на 104 часа:

• Установочная лекция - 2 часа;

• Практические занятия - 12 часов Самостоятельная работа - 92 часа:

Изучение теоретического материала - 12 часов; Подготовка внеаудиторного чтения - 10000 печатных знаков текстов по специальности и составление терминологического словаря - 30 часов; Изучение разговорных тем: «Транспорт» - 5 часов, «Логистика» - 5 часов, «Грузообрабатывающие оборудование» - 10 часов. «Склады» - 10 часов; Выполнение контрольной работы - 20 часов.

Зачет.

♦ Структура и содержание 4 курса

Курс рассчитан на 104 часа:

• Установочная лекция 2 часа;

• Практические занятия - 12 часов Самостоятельная работа - 92 часа:

1. Изучение теоретического материала 10 часов;

2. Подготовка внеаудиторного чтения 10000 печатных знаков текстов по специальности и составление терминологического словаря - 40 часов;

3. Изучение разговорных тем: «Грузовые документы» - 10 часов, «Товарораспорядительные документы» - 10 часов; «Морское страхование грузов» - 10 часов;

4. Выполнение контрольной работы - 12 часов.

• Экзамен.

♦ Самостоятельная работа в межсессионный период

1. Студенты должны изучить следующий теоретический (грамматический) материал:

• Глагол. Формы времени и залога. Видо-временные формы

глагола действительного залога. Модальные глаголы. Страдательный залог (3 курс).

• Неличные формы глагола. Причастия I. II. Инфинитив.

Герундий (4 курс).

• Простое распространенное предложение (прямой порядок слов

повествовательного и побудительного предложений в утвердительной и отрицательной форме). Порядок слов вопросительного предложения (3, 4 курс).

Литература:

1. Далецкая Т.А. Перемещение грузов (в пределах предприятия). Новосибирск: Новосиб. гос. акад. вод. трансп., 2005.

2. Израилевич Е.Е. Коммерческая корреспонденция и документация на английском языке. СПб., 2001. (или любого другого издания).

3. Китаевич Б.Е., Кроленко А.И. Морские грузовые операции. М., 1991.

4. Любой учебник грамматики английского языка.

5. Англо-русский и русско-английский словари.

4 2. Студенты должны выполнить внеаудиторное чтение (тексты представлены в шестой части данных указаний)

Чтение и перевод текстов по специальности. Всего - 10000 печатных знаков. Составление терминологического словаря. Тексты выбираются студентом самостоятельно с учетом его специализации.

3. Студенты должны выполнить контрольную работу:

Необходимо выполнить один из пяти вариантов контрольной работы №3 (для 3 курса) или №4 (для 4 курса) из данных

методических указаний. Контрольную работу необходимо выполнять в соответствии с образцами, находящимися в указанном разделе методических указаний, на основе изученного грамматического материала, который приведен в разделе I. Вариант выбирается по последней цифре шифра студента:

1,2 - вариант № 1 7,8 - вариант №4

3,4 вариант №2 9,0 - вариант №5

5,6 - вариант №3

Контрольную работу следует выполнять в отдельной тетради. На обложке тетради необходимо указать свою фамилию, номер контрольной работы и вариант. Контрольная работа должна выполняться аккуратным, четким почерком. При выполнении контрольной работы оставляйте в тетради широкие поля для замечаний, объяснений и методических указаний рецензента. Задания должны быть представлены в той же последовательности, в которой они даны в контрольной работе, в развернутом виде с указанием номера варианта ответа. После проверки контрольной работы её следует защитить устно
. При устной защите студент должен ответить на вопросы преподавателя по материалу контрольной работы.

4. Отчетность и сроки отчетности

Результаты выполнения контрольной работы (КР) представляются в виде, указанном в пункте 3 на втором или третьем занятии.

♦ Аудиторные занятия, аттестация. К аудиторным занятиям допускаются студенты, выполнившие домашнее задание в межсессионный период. Параллельно с прохождением аудиторных занятий студент корректирует ошибки КР, защищает КР.

На аудиторных занятиях прорабатываются разговорные темы: на 3 курсе - «Транспорт», «Логистика», «Грузообрабатывающие оборудование», «Склады»; на 4 «Грузовые документы»,

«Товарораспорядительные документы», «Морское страхование грузов», которые в дальнейшем выносятся на экзамен (на 4-ом курсе). Студенты должны вести беседу с преподавателем по вышеуказанным темам. С третьего курса на экзамен выносятся две разговорные темы: «Логистика», «Грузообрабатывающие оборудование».

По окончании занятий на 3 курсе - сдача зачёта, на 4 курсе -экзамен.

Структура и содержание зачета за
3-ий курс

Допуск к зачету

•
Чтение и перевод подготовленных текстов (10000 печатных знаков), устно с выписанными словами;

• Устная защита контрольной работы №3. Зачет

• Письменный перевод незнакомого текста со словарем (500 печатных знаков - 30 минут);

• Беседа с преподавателем (ответы на вопросы) по одной из пройденных тем.

Структура и содержание экзамена за 4-ый курс

Допуск к экзамену

• Чтение и перевод подготовленных текстов (10000 печатных знаков), устно - с выписанными словами;

• Устная защита контрольной работы №4. Экзамен

• Письменный перевод незнакомого текста со словарем (500 печатных знаков 30 минут);

• Аннотирование текста по специальности (с ограниченным применением словаря).

• Беседа с преподавателем (ответы на вопросы) по одной из пройденных тем.

6 ЧАСТЬ 2. РАЗГОВОРНЫЕ ТЕМЫ 3 КУРС

I.
Transport (Транспорт)

/. Translate the following expressions into Russian

Movement, network, goods, triad, infrastructure, vehicles, node, terminal, traffic, control, to deal with, policy, tax, to finance, tools, operation, mode, road, railway, airway, waterway, canal, pipeline, seaports, bus, airplane, train, bicycle.

2. Read the text with a dictionary.

Aspects of transport

Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another. The term is derived from the Latin trans
("across") and portare
("to carry").

The field of transport has several aspects: loosely they can be divided into a triad of infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Infrastructure includes the transport networks (roads, railways, airways, waterways, canals, pipelines, etc.). These transport networks are used, as well as the nodes or terminals (such as airports, railway stations, bus stations and seaports). The vehicles generally ride on the networks, such as automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, airplanes. The operations deal with the control of the system, such as traffic signals and ramp meters, air traffic control, etc, as well as policies, such as how to finance the system (for example, the use of tolls or gasoline taxes).

Modes of transport

Modes are combinations of networks, vehicles, and operations, and include walking, the road transport system, rail transport, ship transport and modern aviation.

3.
Answer the questions:

1. What is transportation?

2. What are the aspects of transport?

3. How are the transport networks used?

4. What do the vehicles do?

5. What do operations deal with?

4. Compare transport modes in the World

Worldwide, the most widely used modes for passenger transport are the Automobile (16,000 bn passenger km), followed by Buses (7,000), Air (2,800), Railways (1,900), and Urban Rail (250).

The most widely used modes for freight transport are Sea (40,000 bn ton km), followed by Road (7,000), Railways (6,500), Oil pipelines (2,000) and Inland Navigation (1,500).

EU 15	USA	Japan	World
GDP (PPP) per capita (€)	19,000	28,600	22,300	5,500
Passenger km per capita
Private Car	10,100	22,700	6,200	2,700
Bus/ Coach	1,050	870	740	1,200
Railway	750	78	2,900	320
Air (domestic except World)	860	2,800	580	480

II.
Logistics (Логистика)

1. Translate the following expressions into Russian.

Delivery, warehouses, supplies, packaging, stocking and inventory management, to encompass, handling and preparing orders, physical distribution, a major means, to reduce costs, to improve profit margins, financial, commercial and marketing operations, to entail, transportation costs, fixed price, to guarantee customer service, realm, location, factory, warehouse, to improve, needs, stock.

2. Read the passage through and find answers for the questions:

1. What is important in the first paragraph?

2. What is logistics!

3. What is the second section about?

4. What does the diagram illustrate?

TRANSPORT

I.
Transport today is not just getting things from point A to point B. Today companies are becoming aware that the movement of goods from one location to another encompasses a whole realm of operations. These operations include not only transport and delivery, but the location of

8 factories and warehouses, supplies, packaging, stocking and inventory management, handling and preparing orders.

The structure of its clientele

The type of goods

produced and their

destination

The size and nature of the company

Corporate strategy

2. This larger view of transport operations is often called logistics or physical distribution. Business people now realize that tighter control of logistical operations is a major means of reducing costs and improving profit margins. Transport is used to be the poor relation of group operations, the last wheel. Today companies are creating logistics departments, divisions and even fully-fledged subsidiaries to control all their logistical needs better.

3. The role of a logistics manager is to balance the cost of possession of stocks with their transportation costs. He has the advisory role of moderating the (often conflicting) demands of the company's financial, commercial and marketing operations. A company's logistical strategy should be based on four basic factors:

There is no problem in getting any product to any client at any time. The problem is how to do it at the most efficient cost to the company and the client. A logistical system can improve just-in-time delivery: delivery on a guaranteed date for a fixed price.

By Zsuzsanna Ardo, "English for Practical Management"

3.

Now read the text carefully, looking up any new items in a dictionary or reference book. Then answer the following questions:

1. What is transport today?

2. What does the term "logistics" illustrate?

3. What is the role of the logistics manager?

4. What basic factors is logistical strategy based on?

5. What does just-in-time delivery mean?

4.

Read the text and write a summary in English.

Transport, energy, and the environment

This article is about transport using water-based vehicles. Ship transport is the process of moving people, goods, etc. by barge, boat, ship or sailboat over a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. This is frequently undertaken for purposes of commerce, recreation or military objectives.

A hybrid of ship transport and road transport is the historic horse-drawn boat. Hybrids of ship transport and air transport are kite surfing and parasailing. The first craft were probably types of canoes cut out from tree trunks. The colonization of Australia by Indigenous Australians provides indirect but conclusive evidence for the latest date for the invention of ocean-going craft; land bridges linked southeast Asia through most of the Malay Archipelago but a strait had to be crossed to arrive at New Guinea, which was then linked to Australia. Ocean-going craft were required for the colonization to happen.

Early sea transport was accomplished with ships that were either rowed or used the wind for propulsion, and often, in earlier times with smaller vessels, a combination of the two. Also there have been horse-powered boats, with horses on the deck providing power. Ship transport was frequently used as a mechanism for conducting warfare. Military use of the seas and waterways is covered in greater detail under navy.

Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas, such as the Everglades, some craft, such as the hovercraft, are propelled by large pusher-prop fans.

Although relatively slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large quantities of non-perishable goods. Transport by water is significantly less costly than transport by air for transcontinental shipping. In the context of sea transport, a road is an anchorage.

Microsoft

Encarta
2006.
1993-2005

III. Materials handling equipment
(Грузо
-обрабатывающее
оборудование
)

1. Translate the following expressions into Russian.

Handling, to move, quantity, retail store, production facility, concern, speed, cost, equipment, size, shape, volume, weight, truck, conveyor, crane, forklift truck, aid, assists, heavy, slow, fatiguing, hand-powered platform, towing tractor, capacity, aisle, to power, manually, bulky, route, gravity-feed, power-feed, hand, steam, internal-combustion engine, electric motor, jib, derrick, bridge.

2. Read the text and translate.

Materials handling equipment

1.
Product, or materials, handling is moving small quantities of goods over short distances. It is an activity that takes place in warehouses, production facilities, and retail stores, and also between transportation modes. The concern is to move the goods with speed and low cost. A variety of mechanical equipment is available for handling a wide range of product sizes, shapes, volumes, and weights. The more popular types of materials handling equipment are (I) trucks, (2) conveyors, and (3) cranes.

2. The forklift truck is the most popular of the mechanical materials- handling aids. Trucks
are mechanical assists for moving materials that if moved by hand would be too heavy, too slow, or too fatiguing. These trucks range from hand-powered platforms to towing tractors. Normal variations of the forklift truck include (1) its lifting capacity, (2) its lifting height, (3) whether it can operate in narrow aisles, (4) how it is powered (manually or by mechanical power), and (5) the speed with which it moves.

3. Next in popularity is the conveyor for small, bulky items. Conveyors
are particularly useful for moving high-volume items along a fixed route. There are two main types of conveyors: Gravity-feed and power-feed. Crane
is a machine for moving heavy objects both vertically and horizontally. Cranes range in capacity from a few hundred pounds to several hundred tons. Motive power may be furnished by hand, by steam or internal-combustion engines, or by electric motors. In form, cranes are classified as jib, derrick, or bridge.

3.

Answer the questions:

1. What is product handling?

2. What is the concern of materials handling?

3. What are the popular types of materials handling?

4. What is truck?

5. What variations of trucks do you know?

6. What are conveyors used for?

7. What is crane?

8. How are they classified?

4.

Read and translate the following word combinations.

Capacity, pound, motive power, steam, internal-combustion engine, jib, derrick, bridge, beam, pillar, to rotate, trolley, cantilever, mast, to counterweight, to brace, to run, to mount, gantry crane, elevated tracks.

5.
Read the text, make up an annotation and note down the types of cranes mentioned.

1. The most prominent component of derrick cranes
is the jib, or boom. It is a long beam that is structurally reinforced so that it will not bend. A traveling
jib
crane
is a crane in which the pulley system is suspended from a trolley, or wheeled carriage, moving along the length of the jib. Such traveling cranes usually have lifting capacities of from 5 to 250 tons. A potentially more powerful derrick is the floating crane
. It is built on a barge for such purposes as constructing bridges or salvaging sunken objects.

2. The cantilever crane
used in the construction of ships and tall buildings has a horizontal boom. This boom rests upon and can rotate about a vertical mast. A cantilever crane is commonly used in shipyards.

3. Bridge crane
is another important class of cranes. The pulley system is suspended from a trolley. It moves on tracks along one or two horizontal beams. These beams are called the bridge and are supported at both ends. The bridge itself can move along a pair of parallel rails. The crane can serve a large rectangular area. A circular space can be served by a rotary bridge crane
. The overhead traveling crane
is a bridge crane for which the rails are mounted above the level of the ground or floor. Overhead traveling cranes are commonly used indoors. If the construction of overhead rails is impracticable, the ends of the bridge can be attached to upright towers. These towers move on rails at the ground level. Such cranes are called gantry, or goliath, cranes.

5. A commonly used type of small movable crane is the truck crane.
This is a crane mounted on a heavy, modified truck. Such cranes frequently use unsupported telescoping booms. Truck cranes make up in mobility and ease of transport but they lack in hoisting capacity.

6. Look at the pictures of the cranes and define their types.

7.

Read the text A) think of the most suitable heading, B) write a summary of the text.

A forklift truck (often just called forklift) is a powered industrial truck used to lift and transport materials by means of steel forks inserted under the load. Forklifts are most commonly used to move loads stored on pallets.

A pallet is a flat transport structure made of wood or plastic (and in a few cases metal and paper) which can support a variety of goods in a stable fashion while being lifted by any mobile forklift or other jacking device. The goods are placed on top of the pallet, and can be secured to it by straps or stretch-wrapped plastic film. A pallet is sometimes colloquially called a skid,
by back-formation from skid loader.

The forklift was developed in the 1920s by various companies including the transmission manufacturing company Clark (today known as Clark Material Handling Company) and the hoist company Yale & Towne Manufacturing (Today known as Yale Materials Handling Corporation. It has since become an indispensable piece of equipment in many manufacturing and warehousing operations.

8.

Write a summary of the text and think of the suitable heading.

Развитие мировой экономики на современном этапе характеризуется интенсивными интеграционными процессами. Логистика учеными и специалистами рассматривается как развивающаяся сфера экономики и новое научное направление.

При построении Логистики системный подход находит свое выражение в объединении процессов снабжения, производства, транспорта, распределения и потребления. Техническая база логистики - это современная информатика и вычислительная техника. В реализации принципов логистики скрыты огромные потенциальные возможности повышения эффективности экономики и транспорта. Существенным элементом логистики, от которого зависит надежное функционирование всей логистической системы, является транспортная логистика. Движение материальных потоков обеспечивает объединение процессов снабжения, производства и потребления в единую систему.

Объектом изучения новой научной дисциплины «логистики» являются материальные и связанные с ними информационные и финансовые потоковые процессы. Широкое применение логистики в практике хозяйственной деятельности объясняется необходимостью сокращения временных интервалов между приобретением сырья и поставкой товаров конечному потребителю. Логистика позволяет

минимизировать товарные запасы, а в ряде случаев вообще отказаться от их использования, позволяет существенной сократить время доставки товаров, ускоряет процесс получения информации, повышает уровень сервиса.

IV. Warehouses (Склады
)

/. Translate the following expressions into Russian.

Storage, owning, renting, leasing, storing in transit, private, public, requirements, commodity, bulk, liquid, low, temperature, household, articles, merchandise, facilities, receipt, the bill of lading, inventory, report, to store, to own, terms and conditions, contract, negotiable, nonnegotiable, to issue, endorsement, carrier, upon receipt, to file a claim, item, basis.

2.

Read the text and translate § 2.

1.
Any organization in need of storage space has a number of options. These choices are (I) owning, (2) renting, (3) leasing, and (4) storing in transit. Each offers a different level of cost, risk and managerial involvement. Warehouses are generally classified into private or public. The private warehouse is often built to specialized user needs. The public warehouse must of necessity serve a wide range of user requirements.

2. Public warehouses can be classified into five basic types. Commodity warehouses
limit their services to certain commodity groupings (as lumber, cotton, tobacco, and grain).

Bulk-storage warehouses
offer storage and handling of products in bulk, such as liquid chemicals, oil, highway salts, and syrups. Mixing products and breaking bulk may also be part of the service.

Cold-storage warehouses
are controlled low-temperature warehouses (perishables such as fruits, vegetables, and frozen foods, as well as some chemicals and drugs).

In Household-goods warehouses
storage, handling of household articles, furniture are the specialty of these warehouses.

General-merchandise warehouses
handle a broad range of merchandise, which usually does not require the special facilities or special handling noted in the four previous types of warehouses. In practice, a public warehouse may not strictly be one of these types.

3.

Answer the questions:

1. What are the choices of the organization in need of storage space?

2. How are warehouses classified into?

3. What is the private warehouse built for?

4. What is the public warehouse built for?

5. How can public warehouses be classified?

4.

Read the text, think of the suitable heading and answer the questions:

1. What are the principal documents of a public warehouse?

2. What does the warehouse receipt identify?

3. What warehouse receipt do you know?

4. When is nonnegotiable receipt issued?

5. How can the negotiable receipt be passed?

6. What is the bill of lading?

7. When is the over, short and damage report issued?

8. What does the inventory- status report show?

Several types of documentation become important to the smooth operation of a public warehouse. The principal documents are (1) the warehouse receipt; (2) the bill of lading; (3) the over, short, and damage report; and (4) the inventory-status report. The warehouse receipt
is the primary document. It identifies what is being stored, where the goods are stored, who owns the goods, to whom they are to be delivered, and the terms and conditions of the storage contract. Warehouse receipts may be negotiable or nonnegotiable. A nonnegotiable receipt is issued to a designated person or company. The negotiable receipt may simply pass from one person to another by endorsement of the receipt. The bill of
lading
is the contract document used in the movement of goods. It spells out the terms and conditions under which a carrier moves goods. The over, short, and damage
(O.S. &D.) report is issued upon receipt of the goods at the warehouse, and only if the goods do not arrive in good condition or as stated on the bill of lading. The O.S.&D. report serves as a basis for filing a claim with a carrier. The inventory-status report
shows the inventory position in the warehouse at the end of the month in terms of item, quantity, and weight. It may also be used as the basis for computing the monthly storage charges.

5.
Read the text from exercise 4, note down the principal documents in the operation of a public warehouse and translate them.

6.

Write a summary of the text and think of the suitable heading.

Склад существует, главным образом, как хранилище, где в безопасных условиях находятся грузы, не требуемые в данный момент, но которые понадобятся в будущем. Они, таким образом, сглаживают колебания в потребности и наличии грузов.

Склады существуют во многих пунктах на пути потоков распределения грузов. По назначению склады подразделяются на производственные, сельскохозяйственные, торговые и транспортные.

Транспортные склады размещаются на грузовых ж/д станциях, в морских, речных и воздушных портах. Такие склады предназначены для краткосрочного хранения грузов. В отдельных случаях перевалочные склады используют для накопления, сортировки и формирования партий грузов.

Характерной особенностью складов речных и морских портов является большая номенклатура грузов. Склады портов классифицируются по следующим признакам: месту расположения на территории порта, конструкции и типу здания, виду грузов и характеру их хранения, материалу, из которого построен склад.

_________ ЧАСТЬ 3. КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №3

_______

Чтобы правильно выполнить контрольную работу №3, необходимо усвоить следующие разделы курса.

1. Глагол. Формы времени и залога. Модальные глаголы.

2. Видо-временные формы глагола страдательного залога.

3. Простое распространенное предложение (прямой порядок слов повествовательного и побудительного предложений в утвердительной и отрицательной форме). Порядок слов вопросительного предложения.

Вариант
1

1.Образуйте формы инфинитива страдательного залога и переведите их.

Образец
: to do
- to be done
- быть
сделанным

To bring , to translate, to send, to offer, to make, to speak, to tell, to say, to build, to use, to advise, to break, to give.

2. Преобразуйте предложения, употребив модальные глаголы, переведите предложения, обращая внимание на употребление модальных глаголов в конструкциях страдательного залога.

Образец
: Cargo is protected from contact with water (should).
Cargo should be protected from contact with water. Груз
должен
быть
защищен
от
контакта
с
водой
.

I. Broken dunnage materials are avoided (should). 2. Previously laid dunnage is broken up by cargo packages of different shapes (may). 3. The use of dunnage of retaining the odour of a previous cargo is avoided (should). 4. Double dunnage is also laid (should). 5. A general cargo is dunnaged efficiently almost with any types of wooden boards or battens provided they fulfil the requirements of cleanliness (may).

3. Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите весь текст.

CRANES

Cranes are machines that not only lift heavy objects but also shift them horizontally. Cranes have come into their present widespread application since the introduction of steam engines, internal-combustion

engines, and electric motors, beginning in the 19th century. In form, cranes are classified as jib, derrick, or bridge. A jib crane carries a horizontal jib or beam at the top of a vertical pillar. Horizontal motion of the load can be obtained by rotation of the jib or of the entire crane or by carrying the hoisting tackle over a movable trolley. This trolley runs on the beam. The derrick crane, or derrick, is of cantilever design. It consists of a boom, hinged at the base to the bottom of a vertical mast. The boom is supported at the tip by tackle from the top of the mast. The mast is braced or counterweighted to keep it from collapsing toward the boom. Horizontal motion is obtained by rotating the derrick and by luffing. Luffing is raising or lowering, the boom. A bridge crane consists of a horizontal beam. The beam runs on tracks at both ends for longitudinal motion and carries a trolley running on the beam for lateral motion. The ordinary bridge crane runs on elevated tracks. The gantry crane is mounted on legs that run on (racks at ground level.

4.

Найдите в тексте предложения в Страдате.1ьном залоге, определите время, перепишите и письменно переведете предложения.

5.
Найдите в тексте предложения с модальными глаголами, определите значение глагола, перепишите и письменно переведете предложения.

6. Прочитайте текст, придумайте заголовок и письменно составьте аннотацию.

Грузовой момент башенного крана QTZ 80 С составляет 800 КНм, максимальная грузоподъемность 8 тонн, а максимальный рабочий диапазон 55 м. Конечный подъемный вес равен 1,2 тонны.

Высота подъема QTZ 80 С достигает до 46 метров в стационарном состоянии и 150 метров в анкерном, что идеально подходит для строительства конструкций высотой ниже 50 этажей. Структура этого башенного крана весьма рациональна: главные части, то есть башня и кран выполнены из бесшовных стальных труб с надежным уровнем прочности и сопротивления ветру (парусности).

В кране QTZ 80C используется популярное в Kитае электрооборудование фирмы Tianshui. Ее продукты достаточно долговечны и эффективны, работают без перебоев, что значительно увеличивает производительность.

Вариант 2

/. Образуйте формы инфинитива страдательного залога и

переведите их.

Образец
: to do
- to be done
- быть
сделанным

To take, to find, to see, to do, to join, to visit, to clean, to understand, to meet, to plant, to write, to read, to pay.

2. Преобразуйте предложения употребив модальные глаголы, переведите предложения, обращая внимание на употребление модальных глаголов в конструкциях страдательного залога.

I. The loss of cargo space is avoided by compactness of stowage (can). 2. All the appliances are preliminary inspected for possible signs of wear (should). 3. Sometimes the cargo is unloaded directly from the ship's holds into lighters (may). 4. Heavy cargo pieces up to 300 tons are handled by the floating cranes (can). 5. The condition of the cargo is noted on the spot (should).

3. Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите весь текст.

MATERIALS HANDLING

1. It is the movement of raw goods from their native site to the point of use in manufacturing. Modern materials-handling systems emphasize the integrated flow of goods from the source of raw materials to final user. This can be achieved by transporting goods in large quantities and in standardized units; by handling procedures using cranes, conveyor belts, and other machines; and by the careful coordination of the movement of goods with production, processing, and distribution schedules. Recent developments in bulk transport have been directed toward keeping materials in units as long as possible, minimizing unit costs, and reducing the amount of handling at all stages.

2. Materials handling equipment ranges from the simplest carts and wheelbarrows to a specialized variety of highly sophisticated cranes. Power trucks and forklifts are used for lifting bulky or heavy loads. Trailers transport the materials along a particular route for distribution. Conveyors and monorails are powered artificially or by gravity. They are also widely

used in the short-distance transfer of materials within a plant and for sorting and assembly line production. Containers range from boxes and bins to truck-size proportions. They help to reduce the amount of handling needed for materials and parts, to maximize efficiency through transportation in large units. Frames are also used, with or without pallets, to optimize the use of vertical storage space.

4.

Найдите в тексте предложения в Страдательном залоге, определите время, перепишите и письменно переведете предложения.

6. Прочитайте текст, придумайте заголовок и письменно составьте аннотацию.

Использование крапов мостовых стало неотъемлемой частью эффективной работы для обеспечения устойчивого ритма производства, развития предприятия или выполнения различных погрузо-разгрузочных работ в складских помещениях.

Возможность использования мостового крана как в закрытых помещениях (цех, склад), так и на открытой территории (складских терминалах и открытых площадках ЗЖБК), сделали этот вид подъемно-транспортных механизмов практически незаменимым. Варианты исполнения крановой тележки (крюковая, магнитно-грейферная, грейферная) по требованию заказчика, значительно расширяют спектр применения однобалочного мостового крана и двухбалочного мостового крана.

Производство кранов мостовых сегодня полностью ориентировано на запросы потребителя - все делается только на заказ, учитывая конкретные задачи и потребности.

Вариант 3

I.Образуйте формы переведите их.

инфинитива страдательного залога и

Образец:
to
do
- to
be
clone
- быть сделанным

To finish, to return, to construct, to choose, to buy, to sink, to climb, to wrap, to weigh, to wear, to vary, to unitize, to tally.

I. Holds are unloaded by heavy lift cranes, heavy derricks, gantries or even by floating cranes, if there are some extraweights in the holds (may).

2. Canvas slings are used for bagged goods rather than for rope slings (should). 3. The hooks aren't used with any bales of cotton, bagged cargo and drums of liquids (must). 4. Due attention are given to the weight of the cargo in the sling (should). 5. Case goods are arranged more or less in like sizes before slinging (should).

3.
Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите весь текст.

INDUSTRIAL TRUCKS

I.
It is a carrier designed to transport materials within a factory area with maximum flexibility. Depending on their means of locomotion, industrial trucks may be classified as hand trucks or power trucks. Hand trucks with two wheels permit most of the load to be carried on the wheels. Some of the load must be controlled by the operator to balance the truck during movement. Common two-wheel hand trucks include the barrel, box, drum, hopper, refrigerator, paper-roll, and tote-box trucks.

3. Power trucks are propelled by batteries and an electric-motor drive or by an internal-combustion engine with either a mechanical drive or a generator and electric-motor drive. The non-lift platform truck is used simply for hauling. Other power trucks are provided with mechanisms, usually hydraulic, for lifting the loads. Forklift trucks are equipped with a forklike mechanism on the front end. It is designed to pick up load, elevate

the load to the desired height, transport it, and deposit it at the desired location and height. The truck is commonly used in conjunction with pallets. Pallets are platforms on which goods are stacked, serving to unitize the load being moved. The under side of the pallet is designed to accept the blades of the truck so that the entire pallet load can be moved at one time. The truck-pallet method of movement has proved to be both flexible and efficient. This helps to explain the popularity of its application.

6. Прочитайте текст, придумайте заголовок и письменно составьте аннотацию.

Основанная в 1949 году фирма Liebherr, давно уже стала синонимом и символом качества, как в Европе, так и далеко за ее пределами. С момента появления фирмы, ее основатель Ханс Либхерр сделал ставку на производство мобильного, недорогого и легко монтируемого башенного крана. Первое же изделие принесло предприятию огромный успех и с тех пор концерн Liebherr является признанным лидером среди изготовителей строительной техники. Многие мировые стандарты отрасли заданы именно этим концерном.

Сегодня Liebherr предлагает вниманию покупателей очень большое количество моделей самоходных подъемных кранов для применения в самых различных областях. Они отличаются высокой производительностью, компактностью и маневренностью, в них воплощены самые последние разработки и инновации в производстве самоходных подъемных кранов. Самоходные краны Liebherr предназначены для передвижения не только по шоссе, но и в условиях бездорожья, они прекрасно зарекомендовали себя на разных строительных площадках по всему миру.

Вариант 4

I.Образуйте формы инфинитива страдательного залога и переведите их.

Образец
: to do
- to be done -
быть
сделанным

To throw, to tow, to transfer, to sweep, to swing, to sweat, to lie, to hold, to leave, to store, to shore, to repair, to replace.

Образец
: Cargo is protected from contact with water (should).
Cargo should be protected from contact with water. Груз
должен
быть
защищен
от
контакта
с
водой

I. Heavy cases are not slung with light cases (should). 2. Derricks are not overloaded (must). 3. The tallying of a cargo is made in alphabetically indexed books (should). 4. Tallies are compared and agreed at the end of the say between the ship tally and shore tally and any difference immediately investigated (should). 5. Only a few kinds of machinery and equipment packed in boxes are placed on quays without roof protection (can).

3. Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите весь текст.

MATERIALS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

1.
The third important type of materials-handling equipment is the crane. The crane is not bound to the surface as materials handling trucks, and in many cases conveyors, are. Cranes typically operate over the storage area. They do not use the aisle space required by other methods. They can move extremely heavy loads with agility and safety. Cranes are particularly popular for the handling of basic raw materials (for example, steel and aluminum), loading and unloading ocean-going freight, and handling the transfer of goods onto and off of rail and truck equipment.

2. The stacker crane is one type of materials-handling equipment deserving special mention because of the amount of attention given to it in recent years. The stacker crane is the heart of the automated warehouse. It is designed to conserve space and reduce labor. It is an electronically controlled platform used to store and retrieve goods, usually palletized, from designated storage slots in the rack tower. Much progress has been

made toward controlling cranes by computer and creating the totally automated, minimum-labor warehouse.

6. Прочитайте текст, придумайте заголовок и письменно составьте аннотацию.

Современный погрузчик по технической сложности сравним с автомобилем, а по устройству гидравлической системы и электрики -даже сложнее. Предлагаемые нами модели погрузчиков комплектуются движками "Nissan" и "Isuzu", количество запчастей, на которые вкупе с электрикой и гидравликой может доходить до 3000 наименований в зависимости от модификации и технических характеристик. Поэтому оптимальным вариантом будет доверить сервисные работы специалистам продавца. Важными факторами в оценке уровня предоставляемых услуг являются использование соответствующих технических жидкостей, оригинальных комплектующих и запчастей на поставляемую технику, конкурентоспособность и прозрачность ценообразования стоимости техобслуживания, наличие хорошо оглаженной системы обратной снязи покупатель-продавец. Немаловажно также наличие шоу-рума и возможность тест-драйва предлагаемого погрузчика.

При выборе погрузчика, как и при выборе автомобиля, необходимо четко представлять последующие расходы, чтобы прийти к золотой середине, которая обеспечит наиболее эффективную эксплуатацию техники. Поэтому процесс выбора погрузчика и детальное изучение всех характеристик приобретаемой модели следует проводить при непосредственном участии руководителя технического отдела вашей фирмы или, если таковой отсутствует, лица, ответственного за эксплуатацию и состояние техники.

Вариант 5

1.Образуйте формы инфинитива страдательного залога и переведите их.

Образец
: to do to he clone быть
сделанным

To broadcast, to arrange, to appear, to charge, to keep, to lose, to sell, to confirm, to comprise, to deliver, to drive, to effect, to ensure.

Образец
: С
argo is protected from contact with water (should).
Cargo should he protected from contact with water. Груз
должен
быть
защищен
от
контакта
с
водой

I. All lifting gear are lubricated regularly (must). 2. The bags torn by hooks are sewn up (should). 3. Perishable goods are protected from high temperature in the port cold-stores (should). 4. Cargoes are delivered on the quay before ship's arrival (must). 5. In dependence of the cargo handling method used dry cargo ships are divided into LO-LO, RO-RO, FO-FO vessels (may).

3. Прочитайте, перепишите и письменно переведите весь текст.

Control and capability

1.
Forklift trucks are available in many variations and load capacities. To raise and lower the forks (also known as blades or tines), the operator can tilt the mast to compensate for a load's tendency to angle the blades toward the ground and risk slipping off the forks. Tilt also provides a limited ability to operate on non-level ground. Some machines also allow the operator to move the tines and backrest laterally (side-shift). This allows easier placement of a load. In addition, a few machines offer a hydraulic control to move the tines together or apart. It removes the need for the operator to get out of the cab to manually adjust for a differently sized load.

2. Grab attachments for handling barrels or even kegs also have a control to operate the tongs that grab the load. In some locations (such as carpet warehouses) a long metal pole is used instead of forks to lift large rolls. Another variation, used in some manufacturing facilities, utilizes forklift trucks with a clamp attachment. In this case the operator can open and close around a load, instead of forks. Products such as cartons, boxes,

etc., can be moved with these trucks. The product to be moved is squeezed, lifted, and carried to its destination. These are generally referred to as "clamp trucks".

6. Прочитайте текст, придумайте заголовок и письменно составьте аннотацию.

Автопогрузчик имеет гидравлический привод от двигателя внутреннего сгорания к рабочему оборудованию. Основной рабочий орган А. вилочный захват 1 (рис. 1
), перемещаемый вдоль вертикальной телескопической рамы 2
гидроцилиндром, расположенным внутри рамы. Рама А. цилиндрами наклона 3
может отклоняться вперёд и назад на угол до 15°, что придаёт грузу устойчивое положение на вилках при перевозке и облегчает его выгрузку. Давление в гидравлической системе (до нескольких Мн/.м2
,
или нескольких десятков кгх/см2)
создаётся гидравлическим насосом 5, связанным трансмиссией с двигателем 4.
Рычаги управления гидравлической системой подведены с места водителя А. к золотниковому распределителю 6.

P
ису
hok
I

Автопогрузчик с вилочным захватом применяются при работе с тяжеловесными грузами, а также с мелкими грузами в таре и упаковке, предварительно уложенными на поддоне. В комплект сменных рабочих приспособлений А. входят также ковш, стрела, челюстной захват и др. В России выпускаются А. различной грузоподъёмности (3 т,
5 т
и др.).

ЧАСТЬ 4. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ И ПЕРЕВОДА _____________________ (ЗА ЗКУРС)_______________________

HISTORY OF TRANSPORTATION

Early rowed vessels

The earliest historical evidence of boats is found in Egypt during the 4th millennium ВС. A culture nearly completely riparian, Egypt was narrowly aligned along the Nile, totally supported by it, and served by transport on its uninterruptedly navigable surface below the First Cataract (at modern-day Aswan). There are representations of Egyptian boats used to carry obelisks on the Nile from Upper Egypt that were as long as 300 feet (100 metres), longer than any warship constructed in the era of wooden ships.

The Egyptian boats commonly featured sails as well as oars. Because they were confined to the Nile and depended on winds in a narrow channel, recourse to rowing was essential. This became true of most navigation when the Egyptians began to venture out onto the shallow waters of the Mediterranean and Red seas. Most early Nile boats had a single square sail as well as one level, or row, of oarsmen. Quickly, several levels came into use, as it was difficult to maneuver very elongated boats in the open sea. The later Roman two-level bireme and three-level trireme were most common, but sometimes more than a dozen banks of oars were used to propel the largest boats.

Navigation on the sea began among Egyptians as early as the 3rd millennium ВС. Voyages to Crete were among the earliest, followed by voyages guided by landmark navigation to Phoenicia and, later, using the early canal that tied the Nile to the Red Sea, by trading journeys sailing down the eastern coast of Africa. According to the 5th-century-BC Greek historian Herodotus, the king of Egypt about 600 ВС dispatched a fleet from a Red Sea port that returned to Egypt via the Mediterranean after a journey of more than two years. Cretan and Phoenician voyagers gave greater attention to the specialization of ships for trade.

Model of a Phoenician ship, 13th century ВС. In the Museum of The Philadelphia Civic Center. The basic functions of the warship and cargo ship determined their design. Because fighting ships required speed, adequate space for substantial numbers of fighting men, and the ability to maneuver at any time in any direction, long, narrow rowed ships became the standard for naval warfare. In contrast, because trading ships sought to carry as much tonnage of goods as possible with as small a crew as practicable, the trading vessel became as round a ship as might navigate with facility

(see photograph). The trading vessel required increased freeboard (height between the waterline and upper deck level), as the swell in the larger seas could fairly easily swamp the low-sided galleys propelled by oarsmen. As rowed galleys became higher-sided and featured additional banks of oarsmen, it was discovered that the height of ships caused new problems. Long oars were awkward and quickly lost the force of their sweep. Thus, once kings and traders began to perceive the need for specialized ships, ship design became an important undertaking.

As was true of early wheeled vehicles, ship design also showed strong geographic orientation. Julius Caesar, for one, quickly perceived the distinctive, and in some ways superior, qualities of the ships of northern Europe. In the conquest of Britain and in their encounter with the Batavian area in Holland, Romans became aware of the northern European boat. It was generally of clinker construction (that is, with a hull built of overlapping timbers) and identical at either end. In the Mediterranean, ship design favoured carvel-built (that is, built of planks joined along their lengths to form a smooth surface) vessels that differed at the bow and stern (the forward and rear ends, respectively). In the early centuries, both Mediterranean and northern boats were commonly rowed, but the cyclonic storms found year-round in the Baltic and North Sea latitudes encouraged the use of sails. Because the sailing techniques of these early centuries depended heavily on sailing with a following wind (i.e., from behind), the frequent shifts in wind direction in the north permitted, after only relatively short waits, navigation in most compass directions. In the persistent summer high-pressure systems of the Mediterranean the long waits for a change of wind direction discouraged sailing. It was also more economical to carry goods by ship in the north. With a less absolute dependence on rowing, the double-ended clinker boat could be built with a greater freeboard than was possible in the rowed galleys of the Mediterranean. When European sailors began to look with increasing curiosity at the seemingly boundless Atlantic Ocean, greater freeboard made oceanic navigation more practicable.

Sailing ships

The move to the pure sailing ship came with small but steadily increasing technical innovations that more often allowed ships to sail with the wind behind them. Sails changed from a large square canvas suspended from a single yard (top spar), to complex arrangements intended to pivot on the mast depending on the direction and force of the wind. Instead of being driven solely by the wind direction, ships could "sail into the wind" to the extent that the course taken by a ship became the product of a resolution of forces (the actual wind direction and the objective course of the particular

ship). Sails were devised to handle gentle breezes and to gain some mileage from them as well as from strong winds and to maintain some choice as to course while under their influence.

Types of sails

While the speed of a rowed ship was mainly determined by the number of oarsmen in the crew, in sailing ships the total spread of canvas in the sails was the main determinant of speed. Because winds are not fixed either as to direction or as to force, gaining the maximum effective propulsion from them requires complexly variable sails. There was one constant that characterized navigation by sail throughout its history - to gain speed it was necessary to increase the number of masts on the ship. Ships in both the Mediterranean and the north were single-masted until about AD 1400 and likely as well to be rigged for one basic type of sail. With experience square sails replaced the simple lateen sails that were the mainstay during the Middle Ages, particularly in the Mediterranean.

In the earlier centuries of sailing ships the dominant rig was the square sail, which features a canvas suspended on a boom, held aloft by the mast, and hung across the longitudinal axis of the ship. To utilize the shifting relationship between the desired course of the ship and the present wind direction, the square sail must be twisted on the mast to present an edge to the wind. Among other things this meant that most ships had to have clear decks amidships to permit the shifting of the sail and its boom; most of the deck space was thus monopolized by a single swinging sail. Large sails also required a sizable gang of men to raise and lower the sail (and, when reef ports were introduced, to reef the sail, that is, to reduce its area by gathering up the sail at the reef points).By 1200 the standard sailing ship in the Mediterranean was two-masted, with the foremast larger and hung with a sail new to ordinary navigation at sea. This was the lateen sail, earlier known to the Egyptians and sailors of the eastern Mediterranean. The lateen sail is triangular in shape and is fixed to a long yard mounted at its middle to the top of the mast. The combination of sails tended to change over the years, though the second mast often carried a square sail

One broad classification of sails, which included the lateen, was termed "fore-and-aft" sails - that is, those capable of taking the wind on either their front or back surfaces. Such sails are hung along the longitudinal axis of the ship. By tacking to starboard (the right side) the ship would use the wind from one quarter. Tacking to port (the left side) would use a wind coming from the opposite quarter to attain the same objective.

Asian ships

During this same period China, with its vast land areas and poor road communications, was turning to water for transportation. Starting with a dugout canoe, the Chinese joined two canoes with planking, forming a square punt, or raft. Next, the side, the bow, and the stern were built up with planking to form a large, flat-bottomed wooden box. The bow was sharpened with a wedge-shaped addition below the water!ine. At the stern, instead of merely hanging a steering oar over one side as did the Western ships, Chinese shipbuilders contrived a watertight box, extending through the deck and bottom, that allowed the steering oar or rudder to be placed on the centreline, thus giving better control. The stern was built to a high, small platform at the stern deck, later called a castle in the West, so that, in a following sea, the ship would remain dry. Thus, in spite of what to Western eyes seemed an ungainly figure, the Chinese junk was an excellent hull for seaworthiness as well as for beaching in shoal (shallow) water. The principal advantage, however, not apparent from an external view, was great structural rigidity. In order to support the side and the bow planking, the Chinese used solid planked walls (bulkheads), running both longitudinally and transversely and dividing the ship into 12 or more compartments, producing not only strength but also protection against damage.

In rigging the Chinese junk was far ahead of Western ships, with sails made of narrow panels, each tied to a sheet (line) at each end so that the force of the wind could be taken in many lines rather than on the mast alone; also, the sail could be hauled about to permit the ship to sail somewhat into the wind. By the 15th century junks had developed into the largest, strongest, and most seaworthy ships in the world. Not until about the 19th century did Western ships catch up in performance.

Early oceanic navigation

The rise of oceanic navigation began when the basic Mediterranean trading vessel, the Venetian buss (a full-bodied, rounded two-masted ship), passed through the Strait of Gibraltar. At the time of Richard I of England (reigned 1189-99), whose familiarity with Mediterranean shipping stemmed from his participation in the Crusades, Mediterranean navigation had evolved in two directions: the galley had become a rowed fighting ship and the buss a sail-propelled trader's vessel. From Richard's crusading

expeditions the value of the forecastle and after castle - giving enclosed deck houses and a bulging bow of great capacity - was learned, and this

style became the basis of the English oceangoing trader. These crusading

voyages also introduced the English to journeys longer than the coasting and North Sea navigation they had previously undertaken.

The story of European navigation and shipbuilding is in large part one of interaction between technical developments in the two narrow boundary seas. It is thought that sailors from Bayonne in southwestern France introduced the Mediterranean carrack (a large three-masted, carvel-build ship using both square and lateen sails) to northern Europe and in turn introduced the double-ended clinker ship of the north to the Mediterranean. This crossfertilization took place in the 14th century, a time of considerable change in navigation in the Atlantic-facing regions of France, Spain, and Portugal.

Changes in shipbuilding during the Middle Ages were gradual. Among northern ships the double-ended structure began to disappear when sailing gained dominance over rowing. To make best use of sails meant moving away from steering oars to a rudder, first attached to the side of the boat and then, after a straight stern post was adopted, firmly attached to that stern. By 1252 the Port Books of Damme in Flanders distinguished ships with rudders on the side from those with stern rudders

The arts of navigation were improving at the same time. The compass was devised at the beginning of the 14th century, but it took time to understand how to use it effectively in a world with variable magnetic declinations. It was only about the year 1400 that the lodestone began to be used in navigation in any consistent manner.

15-ccntury ships and shipping

The early 15th century saw the rise of the full-rigged ship, which had three masts and five or six sails. At the beginning of that century Europe and Asia were connected by caravan routes over land. The galleys or trade ships were long, low-sided, commonly rowed for much of their voyage, and guided by successive landfalls with little need for the compass and mathematical navigation. By the end of the century Da Gama, Columbus, and Cabot had made their revolutionary journeys, the Portuguese had organized the first school of oceanic navigation, and trade had begun to be global.

"Full-rigged" ships were introduced because trade was becoming larger in scale, more frequent in occurrence, and more distant in destination. There was no way to enlarge the propulsive force of ships save by increasing the area of sail. To pack more square yards of canvas on a hull required multiple masts and lofting more and larger sails on each mast. As multiple masts were added, the hull was elongated; keels were often two

and a half times as long as the ship's beam (width). At the beginning of the 15th century large ships were of about 300 tons; by 1425 they were approximately 720 tons.

In the 16th century the full-rigged ship was initially a carrack, a Mediterranean three-master perhaps introduced from Genoa to England. The trade between the Mediterranean and England was carried on at Southampton largely by these carracks. As the years passed the galleon became the most distinctive vessel. This was most commonly a Spanish ship riding high out of the water. Although the name suggested a large galley, galleons probably never carried oars and were likely to be four-masted.

In earlier centuries ships were often merchantmen sufficiently armed to defend themselves against pirates, privateersmen. and the depredations of an active enemy. In peacetime a ship would go about its business as a nation's trader, but it was able to become a fighting vessel if necessary. When the size of guns and the numbers involved grew to create an offensive capability, there remained little space to carry the volume of goods required by a trader. What resulted was the convoy, under which merchantmen would be protected by specialized naval ships. The distinction between warship and trading ship might have remained quite abstract had not the theory and tactics of warfare changed. Most medieval wars were either dynastic or religious, and armies and navies were small by modern standards. But beginning with the warfare between the Dutch and the English in the 17th century, conflict was the result of competition in trade rather than in sovereignty and faith. Thus, the major trading nations came to dominate ship design and construction.

17th-century developments

With the emergence of the eastern trade about 1600 the merchant ship had grown impressively. The Venetian buss was rapidly supplanted by another Venetian ship, the cog. A buss of 240 tons with lateen sails was required by maritime statutes of Venice to be manned by a crew of 50 sailors. The crew of a square-sailed cog of the same size was only 20 sailors. Thus began an effort that has characterized merchant shipping for centuries to reduce crews to the minimum. This was particularly true of oceanic navigation, because larger crews were expensive to pay and to provision - and the large amounts of provisions necessary were sometimes critical on long voyages.

In the north, vessels were commonly three-masted by the 16th century. These were the ships that Cabot used to reach Newfoundland and

Drake, Frobisher, and Raleigh sailed over the world's oceans. Raleigh wrote that the Dutch ships of the period were so easy to sail that a crew one-third the size used in English craft could operate them. Efforts were made to accomplish technical improvements on English copies of Venetian and Genoese traders. These ultimately resulted in the East Indiaman of the 17th century. This large and costly ship was intended to be England's entry in a fierce competition with the Dutch for the trade of India and the Spice Islands.

When Europeans began to undertake trading voyages to the East, they encountered an ancient and economically well-developed world. In establishing a sea link with the East, European merchants could hope to get under way quickly using the producers already resident there and the goods in established production. What resulted were European "factories," settlements for trade established on coasts at places such as Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. Some European merchants settled there, but there was no large-scale migration; production of the goods followed established procedures and remained in Asian hands. In contrast, in the New World of America and Australia there was so little existing production of trading goods that the establishment of ties required not only the pioneering of the trading route but also the founding of a colony to create new production. Shipping was critical in each of these relationships but became larger and more continuous in the case of the colonies.

Competition was fierce among the Europeans for the riches of the overseas trade. As the voyages were frequently undertaken by trading consortia from within the chartered company, a great deal is known about the profits of individual round-trips. Standard profits were 100 percent or more. In the accumulation of capital, by countries and by individuals, this mercantile activity was of the utmost importance. Holland's "Golden Century" was the 17th, and England's overtaking of France as Europe's seat of industry also occurred then. The English realized quickly that their merchant ships had to carry enough cannon and other firepower to defend their factories at Bombay and elsewhere and to ward off pirates and privateers on the long voyage to and from the East. In India the English contested trading concessions particularly with France and Portugal; in the East Indian archipelago the contest was with the Dutch and the Portuguese; and in China it was with virtually all maritime powers in northern and western Europe. The result was that the East India merchantmen were very large ships, full-rigged and multimasted, and capable of sailing great distances without making a port.

To secure the strength and competence of these great merchant ships, advances in shipbuilding were necessary. The money was there: profits of 218 percent were recorded over five years, and even 50 percent profit could be earned in just 20 months. Among those undertaking more scientific construction was the British shipbuilder Phineas Pett (1570-1647). Much fine shipbuilding emerged, including ships of the English East India Company, but the company began to freeze its designs too early, and its operating practices were a combination of haughty arrogance and lordly corruption. Captains were appointed who then let out the functioning command to the highest bidder. Education was thin, treatment of sailors despicable, and reverence for established practice defeated the lessons of experience. The merchantmen had to carry large crews to have available the numbers to make them secure against attack. But lost in this effort for security was the operating efficiency that a sound mercantile marine should seek.

It was left more to other maritime markets to develop improvements in merchantmen after the early 17th century. The Dutch competitors of England were able to build and operate merchant ships more cheaply. In the 16th century the sailing ship in general service was the Dutch fluyt, which made Holland the great maritime power of the 17th century. A long, relatively narrow ship designed to carry as much cargo as possible, the fluyt featured three masts and a large hold beneath a single deck. The main and fore masts carried two or more square sails and the third mast a lateen sail. Only at the conclusion of the century, when the Dutch had been decisively defeated in the Anglo-Dutch trading wars, did England finally succeed to the role of leading merchant marine power in the world.

That role was gained in part because Oliver Cromwell restricted English trade to transport in English craft. In 1651 laws were initiated by Cromwell to deal with the low level of maritime development in England. The so-called Navigation Act sought to overcome conditions that had originated in the late Middle Ages when the Hanseatic League, dominating trade in the Baltic and northern Europe, carried most of Britain's foreign seaborne trade. When the Hansa declined in power in the 16th century the Dutch, just then beginning to gain independence from Spain politically and from Portugal in trade, gained a major part of the English carrying trade. The Navigation Act initiated a rapid change in that pattern. After the restoration of the Stuart monarchy, English shipping nearly doubled in tonnage between 1666 and 1688. By the beginning of the 18th century Britain had become the greatest maritime power and possessed the largest

merchant marine until it lost that distinction to the Americans in the mid-19th century.

A further factor in the growth of national merchant marines was the increasing enforcement of the law of cabotage in the operations of the mercantile powers of northern and western Europe with respect to their rapidly expanding colonial empires. Cabotage was a legal principle first enunciated in the 16th century by the French. Navigation between ports on their coasts was restricted to French ships; this principle was later extended to apply to navigation between a metropolitan country and its overseas colonies. This constituted a restriction of many of the world's trade routes to a single colonial power. It became clear that a power seeking an advantage in shipping would be amenable to supporting the cost and fighting that gaining such colonies might require. Geographic knowledge gained economic and political value in these conditions. It was in the 17th century that the Dutch, the French, and the English began trying to fill out the map of the known oceans. Islands and coastlines were added to sailing charts almost on an annual basis. By the mid-18th century all the world's shorelines not bound by sea ice. with fairly minor exceptions, were charted. Only Antarctica remained hidden until the mid-19th century.

Shipping in the 19th century

Once the extent and nature of the world's oceans was established, the final stage of the era of sail had been reached. American independence played a major role determining how the final stage developed.

To understand why this was so, it should be appreciated that Britain's North American colonies were vital to its merchant marine, for they formed a major part of its trading empire as customers for British goods. Under mercantilist economic doctrine, colonies were intended as a source of raw materials and as a market for manufactured goods produced in the metropolitan country. Maine, New Hampshire, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were rich in naval stores and timber for inexpensive hulls, masts, and spars. And the Navigation Act as amended also granted to the merchant fleets in British North America a monopoly on the transport of goods and passengers within the British Empire. When the United States became independent in 1783 the former colonies were rigidly denied access to the British metropolitan and colonial markets. The substantial trade that had tied Boston to Newfoundland and the British West Indies was severed, leaving the Americans to find an alternative trading system as quickly as possible. New England and the Middle Atlantic states, where there were significant fleets of sailing ships, turned to the Atlantic and Mediterranean

islands as well as to Mauritius and to China. In this way, the merchants in the American ports created direct competition to the British East India Company. In doing so, they needed ships that could sail in the Far Eastern trade without the protection of the British navy and that could operate more efficiently and economically than those of the East India Company.

The British East Indiamen were extravagantly expensive to build. Contracts for their construction were awarded by custom and graft. Captains were appointed by patronage rather than education or professional qualifications. And the journeys to Canton, China, from England in East Indiamen were slow in a trade where fast passages were of value, for example, in guarding the quality of the tea being carried. American merchants were fully aware of these failings of the company and its ships. They set out to gain a foothold in the trade through innovations, particularly after the East India Company's monopoly in Britain's China trade was abolished in 1833.British shipping remained rather stagnant after the development of the East Indiaman in the 17th century. The Dutch became the innovators in the second half of the 17th century and maintained that status until the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars. The British East India Company was paying ?40 a ton for ships whereas other owners paid only ?25. In the 19th century American shipbuilders studied basic principles of sail propulsion and built excellent ships more cheaply. They also studied how to staff and operate them economically. The Americans began to see that even larger ships (that is. longer in relation to breadth) could carry more sail and thereby gain speed and the ability to sail well under more types of winds. For perishable cargoes speed meant that these fast ships reached British and European markets before those of their competitors and with a product in better condition.

In the 25 years after 1815 American ships changed in weight from 500 to 1,200 tons and in configuration from a hull with a length 4 times the beam to one with a ratio of 5 1/2 to I. The faster and thus shorter journeys meant that the shipowner could earn back his investment in two or three years. The Mayflower had taken 66 days to cross the Atlantic in 1620. The Black Ball Lines' nine-year average as of 1825 was 23 days from Liverpool to New York City. Twenty years later Atlantic ships had doubled in size and were not credited as a success unless they had made at least a single east-bound dash of 14 days or less.

The culmination of these American innovations was the creation of a hull intended primarily for speed, which came with the clipper ships. Clippers were long, graceful three-masted ships with projecting bows and exceptionally large spreads of sail. The first of these, the Rainbow, was

built in New York in 1845. It was followed by a number of ships built there and in East Boston particularly intended for the China-England tea trade, which was opened to all merchant marines by the late 1840s. Subsequently the Witch of the Wave (an American clipper) sailed from Canton to Deal in England in 1852 in just 90 days. Similar feats of sailing were accomplished in Atlantic crossings. In 1854 the Lightning sailed 436 miles in a day, at an average speed of 18 1/2 knots. By 1840, however, it was clear that the last glorious days of the sailing ship were at hand. Pure sailing ships were in active use for another generation, while the earliest steamships were being launched. But by 1875 the pure sailer was disappearing, and by the turn of the 20th century the last masts on passenger ships had been removed.

Machine-powered transportation

The most fundamental transformation that has ever taken place in transportation was the introduction of machine power to the traction or propulsion of vehicles. Specifically, for the first time in history power was produced within a vehicle from fuels that were either part of the original lading or periodically or continuously added to its charge. Energy production took place within a machine or reactor whose motions were transformed into tractive or propulsive movement. This change may be termed the arrival of the era of machine-powered transportation.

The earliest engines were highly inefficient. They were used to pump water from mines or to refill reservoirs and later to wind cables in elevators within mines. The Boulton and Watt steam engines developed in England in the latter half of the 18th century could produce only a modest output in relation to their fuel consumption. Improvements that increased steam pressures above a single atmosphere allowed the size and weight of engines to be reduced so they might be installed in vehicles.

Like a number of machines, the steam engine was not the invention of a single person in a single place but James Watt, a builder of scientific instruments at the University of Glasgow, was most directly responsible for a successful design. Though it improved incrementally over a period of a generation, the steam engine was fully operable by 1788. Watt entered into a partnership in Birmingham in 1775 with the manufacturer Matthew Boulton, at whose Soho Works the firm constructed a total of 496 steam engines many of which were used, as the earlier steam engines of the British engineer Thomas Newcomen had been, to pump water from mines or to operate waterworks. It was only at the end of Boulton and Watt's partnership that the machinery was applied to transport vehicles.

The key to that introduction was in the creation of a more efficient steam engine. Early engines were powered by steam at normal sea-level atmospheric pressure (approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch), which required very large cylinders. The massive engines were thus essentially stationary in placement. Any attempt to make the engine itself mobile faced this problem. The French military engineer Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot had made one of the first applications of higher-pressure steam when in 1769 he developed a tricycle (with two cylinders) at first intended as a tractor for moving cannon; this is commonly thought of as the first automobile. When two proponents of steam locomotion - Richard Trevithick in Wales and Oliver Evans in Delaware and Pennsylvania - conducted the earliest successful experiments with steam locomotives in the first decade of the 19th century, they both sought to use high-pressure steam. But most of the steam engines constructed and put to use in the last quarter of the 18th century were of Boulton and Watt manufacture and were large and rather weak.

The steamboat

This cumbersome quality of early 19th-century steam engines led to their being used first on ships. In the beginning the discordant relationship of machine weight to power production was a problem, but the ability to enlarge ships to a much greater size meant that the engines did not have to suffer severe diminution. A real constraint was the pattern of natural waterways; early steamboats for the most part depended on paddles to move the vessel, and it was found that those paddles tended to cause surface turbulence that eroded the banks of a narrow waterway, as most of the inland navigation canals were. Thus, the best locale for the operation of steamboats was found to be on fairly broad rivers free of excessively shallow stretches or rapids. A further consideration was speed. Most of the early experimental steamboats were very slow, commonly in the range of three or four miles per hour. At such speeds there was a considerable advantage redounding to coaches operating on well-constructed roads, which were quite common in France and regionally available in England.

The ideal venue for steamboats seemed to be the rivers of the eastern United States. Colonial transportation had mainly taken place by water, either on the surfaces of coastal bays and sounds or on fairly broad rivers as far upstream as the lowest falls or rapids. Up to the beginning of the 19th century a system of coastal and inland navigation could care for most of the United States' transportation needs. If a successful steamboat could be

developed, the market for its use was to be found in the young, rapidly industrializing country.

Early examples

The question of the invention of the steamboat raises fierce chauvinistic claims, particularly among the British, French, and Americans, but there seems to be broad agreement that the first serious effort was carried out by a French nobleman, Claude-Francois-Dorothee, Marquis d' Jouffroy d'Abbans, on the Doubs River at Baum-des-Dames in the Franche-Comte in 1776. This trial was not a success, but in 1783 Jouffroy carried out a second trial with a much larger engine built three years earlier at Lyon. This larger boat, the Pyroscaphe, was propelled by two paddle wheels, substituted for the two "duck's feet" used in the previous trial. The trial took place on the gentle River Saone at Lyon, where the overburdened boat of 327,000 pounds moved against the current for some 15 minutes before it disintegrated from the pounding of the engines. This was unquestionably the first steam-powered boat to operate. There were subsequent French experiments, but further development of the steamboat was impeded by the French Revolution

In the eastern United States James Rumsey, the operator of an inn at the Bath Springs spa in Virginia (later West Virginia), sought to interest George Washington in a model steamboat he had designed. On the basis of Washington's support, Virginia and Maryland awarded Rumsey a monopoly of steam navigation in their territories.

At the same time, another American, John Fitch, a former clockmaker from Connecticut, began experimenting with his vision of a steamboat. After much difficulty in securing financial backers and in finding a steam engine in America, Fitch built a boat that was given a successful trial in 1787. By the summer of 1788 Fitch and his partner, Henry Voight, had made repeated trips on the Delaware River as far as Burlington, 20 miles above Philadelphia, the longest passage then accomplished by a steamboat.

British inventors were active in this same period. Both Rumsey and Fitch ultimately sought to advance their steamboats by going to England, and Robert Fulton spent more than a decade in France and Britain promoting first his submarine and later his steamboat. In 1788 William Symington, son of a millwright in the north of England began experimenting with a steamboat that was operated at five miles per hour, faster than any previous trials had accomplished. He later claimed speeds of six and a half and seven miles per hour, but his steam engine was thought too weak to serve, and for the time his efforts were not rewarded. In 1801

Symington was hired by Lord Dundas, a governor of the Forth and Clyde Canal, to build a steam tug; the Charlotte Dundas was tried out on that canal in 1802. It proved successful in pulling two 70-ton barges the 19 1/2 miles to the head of the canal in six hours. The governors, however, fearing bank erosion, forbade its use on that route, and British experiments failed to lead further for some years.

Fulton's steamboat

Instead, Robert Fulton, an American already well-known in Europe, began to gain headway in developing a steamboat. British historians have tended to deny his contributions and assign them to his supposed piracy of British inventions. It has been shown that he could not have pirated the plans of the Charlotte Dundas, but the record remains largely uncorrected. Fulton's "invention" of the steamboat depended fundamentally on his ability to make use of Watt's patents for the steam engine, as Fitch could not. Having experimented on steamboats for many years, by the first decade of the 19th century Fulton had determined that paddle wheels were the most efficient means of propelling a boat, a decision appropriate to the broad estuarine rivers of the Middle Atlantic states. Fulton had built and tested on Aug. 9, 1803, a steamboat that ran four times to the Quai de Chaillot on the Seine River in Paris. As it operated at no more than 2.9 miles per hour-slower than a brisk walk he considered these results at best marginal.

Fulton returned to the United States in December 1806 to develop a successful steamboat with his partner Robert Livingston. A monopoly on steam boating in New York state had been previously granted to Livingston, a wealthy Hudson Valley landowner and American minister to France. On Aug. 17, 1807, what was then called simply the "North River Steamboat" steamed northward on the Hudson from the state prison. After spending the night at Livingston's estate of Clermont (whose name has ever since erroneously been applied to the boat itself) the "North River Steamboat" reached Albany eight hours later after a run at an average speed of five miles per hour (against the flow of the Hudson River). This was a journey of such length and relative mechanical success that there can be no reasonable question it was the first unqualifiedly successful steamboat trial. Commercial service began immediately, and the boat made one and a half round-trips between New York City and Albany each week. Many improvements were required in order to establish scheduled service, but from the time of this trial forward Fulton and Livingston provided uninterrupted service, added steamboats, spread routes to other rivers and

sounds, and finally, in 1811, attempted to establish steamboat service on the Mississippi River.

The trial on the Mississippi was far from a success but not because of the steamboat itself. Fulton, Livingston, and their associate Nicholas Roosevelt had a copy of their Hudson River boats built in Pittsburgh as the New Orleans. In September 1811 it set sail down the Ohio River, making an easy voyage as far as Louisville, but as a deep-draft estuarine boat it had to wait there for the flow of water to rise somewhat. Finally, drawing no more than five inches less than the depth of the channel, the New Orleans headed downriver. In an improbable coincidence, the steamboat came to rest in a pool below the Falls of the Ohio just before the first shock was felt of the New Madrid earthquake, the most severe temblor ever recorded in the United States. The earthquake threw water out of the Ohio and then the Mississippi, filling the floodplain of those rivers, changing their channels significantly, and choking those channels with uprooted trees and debris. When the New Orleans finally reached its destination it was not sent northward again on the service for which it had been built. Steamboats used on the deeper and wider sounds and estuaries of the northeastern United States were found to be unsuited to inland streams, however wide. Eventually boats drawing no more than 9-12 inches of water proved to be successful in navigating the Missouri River westward into Montana and the Red River into the South; this pattern of steam boating spread throughout much of interior America, as well as the interior of Australia, Africa, and Asia.

Commercial steam navigation

From the onset of successful inland steam navigation in 1807, progress was quite rapid. Fulton's steamboats firmly established Livingston's monopoly on the Hudson and adjacent rivers and sounds. Another experimenter, John Stevens, decided to move his steamboat Phoenix from the Hudson to the Delaware River. In June 1809, a 150-mile run in the ocean between Perth Amboy, N.J., and Delaware Bay was the first ocean voyage carried out by a steamboat. Subsequently other coasting voyages were used to reach by sea the south Atlantic coast of the United States to Charleston, S.C., and Savannah, Ga. Slowly and tentatively voyages along narrow seas were undertaken, and more countries became involved with steam navigation.

The first commercial steam navigation outside the United States began in 1812 when Henry Bell, the proprietor of the Helensburg Baths located on the Clyde below Glasgow, added a steamboat, the Comet, to carry his

customers from the city. It was followed soon after by others steaming to the western Highlands and to other sea lochs. One of these, the Margery, though built on the Clyde in 1814, was sent to operate on the Thames the next year; but so much difficulty was encountered from established watermen's rights on that stream that the boat was transferred in 1816 to French ownership and renamed the Elise. It competed with Jouffroy's Charles-Philippe in service on the Seine. Because of the generally more stormy nature of Europe's narrow seas these steaming packets were generally small and cramped but capable of crossing waters difficult for the American river steamboats to navigate.

The early 19th-century steamboat experiments were aimed primarily at building and operating passenger ships. Endowed with the Mississippi-Ohio-Missouri river system, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes system, the Columbia and its tributaries, and the Colorado system, North America had virtually ideal conditions for the creation of an extensive, integrated network of inland navigation by shallow-draft steamboats. There was a strong geographic expansion under way in Canada and the United States that would be more quickly advanced by steamboats than by land transportation. North American transportation before the late 1850s was by river in most regions. This was not a unique situation: most areas subject to 19th-century colonization by Europeans such as Siberia, South America, Africa, India, and Australia had a heavy dependence on river transport.

There were some mechanical improvements that encouraged this use of steamboats. Higher-pressure steam made craft more efficient, as did double- and triple-expansion engines. Improved hulls were designed. It was, however, the general level of settlement and economic productivity that tended to bring steamboat use to an end in inland transport. A demand for shipments of coal finally made the railroad the most economical form of transport and removed steamboats from many streams

Oceanic navigation

The first Atlantic crossings It was on the North Atlantic that most of the advances in steam shipping took place. Because river line and narrow-seas steaming was first to gain commercial importance, and shallow-water propulsion was easily accomplished with paddle wheels turning beside or behind the hull, that method of driving a ship was also the first to be used at sea.

Oceanic steam navigation was initiated by an American coastal packet first intended entirely for sails but refitted during construction with an auxiliary engine. Built in the port of New York for the Savannah Steam Ship Company in 1818, the Savannah was 98.5 feet long with a 25.8-foot

beam, a depth of 14.2 feet, and a displacement of 320 tons. Owing to a depression in trade, the owners sold the boat in Europe where economically constructed American ships were the least expensive on the market and were widely seen as the most advanced in design. Unable to secure either passengers or cargo, the Savannah became the first ship to employ steam in crossing an ocean. At 5:00 in the morning on May 24, 1819, it set sail from Savannah. After taking on coal at Kinsale in Ireland, it reached Liverpool on July 20, after 27 days and 11 hours; the engine was used to power the paddle wheels for 85 hours. Subsequently the voyage continued to Stockholm and St. Petersburg, but at neither place was a buyer found; it thus returned to Savannah, under sail because coal was so costly, using steam only to navigate the lower river to reach the dock at Savannah itself.

The next voyage across the Atlantic under steam power was made by a Canadian ship, the Royal William, which was built as a steamer with only minor auxiliary sails, to be used in the navigation of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The owners, among them the Quaker merchant Samuel Cunard, of Halifax, N.S., decided to sell the ship in England. The voyage from Quebec to the Isle of Wight took 17 days. Soon thereafter, the Royal William was sold to the Spanish government. The ability to navigate the North Atlantic was demonstrated by this voyage, but the inability to carry any load beyond fuel still left the Atlantic challenge unmet. Copyright (0 1994-2002 Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

Machine-powered transportation

Oceanic navigation

The "Atlantic Ferry
"

At this point the contributions of Isambard Kingdom Brunei to sea transportation began. Brunei was the chief engineer of the Great Western Railway between Bristol and London, which was nearing completion in the late 1830s. A man who thrived on challenges, Brunei could see no reason his company should stop in Bristol

just because the land gave out there. The Great Western Railway Company set up a Great Western Steamship Company in 1836, and the ship designed by Brunei, the Great Western, set sail for New York City on April 8, 1838. Thus began a flow of shipping that earned in the second half of the 19th century the sobriquet "4he Atlantic Ferry" because of its scale and great continuity.

The Great Britain (1843), the first steamship with an iron hull. The Great Western Steamship Company, though the first major company organized, did not earn the pride of place one might have expected. Its next ship, the Great Britain of 1843 (see photograph), was the first with an all-iron hull; it has survived, now in the dry dock in which it was constructed in Bristol's Floating Dock, to this day. It was Cunard's steamboat company, however, that won the British government contract to establish a mail line across the North Atlantic. In 1840 the Cunard Line launched four paddle steamers with auxiliary sails - the Britannia, Acadia, Columbia, and Caledonia - which with their long line of successors became the leaders in a drive for speed and safety on the North Atlantic. From 1840 until the outbreak of the American Civil War the competition lay largely between the British lines and the American lines. During the war American shipping was greatly reduced as Confederate raiders, mostly constructed in Britain, either sank Union ships or drove them to operate under other registries. For a short period in the 1860s the United States went from being the world's largest merchant marine power to merely an importing shipping nation.

By the mid-1860s Britain had abandoned the paddle steamer for the Atlantic run, but the recently organized Compagnie Generale Transatlantique (known as the French Line in the United States) in 1865 launched the Napoleon III, which was the last paddle steamer built for the Atlantic Ferry. Early in the history of steam navigation the Swedish engineer John Ericsson had attempted unsuccessfully to interest the British Admiralty in the screw propeller he had invented. The U.S. Navy did adopt the propeller, however, and Ericsson moved to the United States. While there he also did pioneering work on the ironclad warship, which was introduced by the Union navy during the Civil War.

During the last third of the 19th century, competition was fierce on the North Atlantic passenger run. Steamship companies built longer ships carrying more powerful engines. Given the relatively large space available on a ship, the steam could be pressed to do more work through the use of double- and triple-expansion engines. That speed appealed greatly to the first-class passengers, who were willing to pay premium fares for a fast voyage. At the same time, the enlarged ships had increased space in the steerage, which the German lines in particular saw as a saleable item. Central Europeans were anxious to emigrate to avoid the repression that took place after the collapse of the liberal revolutions of 1848, the establishment of the Russian pogroms, and conscription in militarized Germany, Austria, and Russia. Because steamships were becoming increasingly fast, it was possible to sell little more than bed space in the

steerage, leaving emigrants to carry their own food, bedding, and other necessities. Without appreciating this fact, it is hard to explain why a speed race led as well to a great rise in the capacity for immigration to the United States and Canada.

Steamship transportation was dominated by Britain in the latter half of the 19th century. The early efforts there had been subsidized by mail contracts such as that given to Cunard in 1840. Efforts by Americans to start a steamship line across the Atlantic were not notably successful. One exception was the Collins Line, which in 1847 owned the four finest ships then afloat - the Arctic, Atlantic, Baltic, and Pacific - and in 1851 the Blue Riband (always a metaphorical rank rather than an actual trophy) given for the speediest crossing of the New York-Liverpool route passed from Cunard's Acadia to the Collins Pacific, with the winning speed averaging 13 knots. The Collins Line, however, did not survive for long. Collision removed the Arctic from the line in 1854, and other losses followed. The contest was then mostly among British companies

Most ships on the Atlantic were still wooden-hulled, so that the newer side-lever steam engines were too powerful for the bottoms in which they were installed, making maintenance a constant problem. Eventually the solution was found in iron-hulled ships. The size of ships was rapidly increased, especially those of Brunei. Under his aegis in 1858 a gigantic increase was made with the launching of the Great Eastern, with an overall length of 692 feet, displacing 32,160 tons, and driven by a propeller and two paddle wheels, as well as auxiliary sails. Its iron hull set a standard for most subsequent liners, but its size was too great to be successful in the shipping market of the l860s.German ships of this period tended to be moderately slow and mostly carried both passengers and freight. In the late 1890s the directors of the North German Lloyd Steamship Company entered the high-class passenger trade by construction of a Blue Riband-class liner. Two ships were ordered - the 1,749-passenger Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse (655 feet long overall; displacement 23,760 tons), with twin screws, and the Kaiser Friedrich, which was returned to the builders having failed to meet speed requirements. When the Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse won the Blue Riband on the eastbound leg of its third voyage in the fall of 1897, a real race broke out. North German Lloyd handled 28 percent of the passengers landed in New York City in 1898, so Cunard ordered two superliners, which represented the first steamers to be longer than the Great Eastern.

Passenger liners in the 20th century

The upper limits of speed possible with piston-engined ships had been reached, and failure in the machinery was likely to cause severe damage to the engine. In 1894 Charles A. Parsons designed the yacht Turbinia, using a steam turbine engine with only rotating parts in place of reciprocating engines. It proved a success, and in the late 1890s, when competition intensified in the Atlantic Ferry, the question arose as to whether reciprocating or turbine engines were the best for speedy operation. Before Cunard's giant ships were built, two others of identical size at 650 feet (Caronia and Carmania) were fitted, respectively, with quadruple-expansion piston engines and a steam-turbine engine so that a test comparison could be made; the turbine-powered Carmania was nearly a knot faster. Cunard's giant ships, the Lusitania and the Mauretania, were launched in 1906. The Lusitania was sunk by a German submarine in 1915 with a great loss of life. The Mauretania won the Blue Riband in 1907 and held it until 1929. It was perhaps the most popular ship ever launched until it was finally withdrawn in 1934.The British White Star Line, which competed directly with Cunard, also had commissioned two giant liners. The Olympic of 1911, displacing 45,324 tons, was then the largest ship ever built. The Titanic of 1912 displaced 46,329 tons, so vast as to seem unsinkable. The Titanic operated at only 21 knots, compared with the Mauretania's 27 knots, but its maiden voyage in 1912 was much anticipated. The ship collided with an iceberg off the Newfoundland coast and sank within hours, with a loss of about 1,500 lives.

World War I completely disorganized the Atlantic Ferry and in 1918 removed German competition. At that time Germany had three superliners, but all were taken as war reparations. The Vaterland became the U.S. Line's Leviathan; the Imperator became the Cunard Line's Barengaria; and the Bismarck became the White Star Line's Majestic. That war severely cut traffic, although ships were used for troop transport. By eliminating German competition and seizing their great ships, the Western Allies returned to competing among themselves.

During the prosperous years of the 1920s, tourist travel grew rapidly, calling forth a new wave of construction, beginning with the French Line's lle de France in 1927 and gaining fiercer competition when the Germans returned to the race with the launching on successive days in 1928 of the Europa and the Bremen. But by the end of 1929 the Great Depression had begun; it made transatlantic passage a luxury that fewer and fewer could afford and rendered immigration to the United States impractical

Because the international competition in transatlantic shipping reached full stride only with the return of German ships in 1928, major decisions as to construction were made just as the Great Depression was beginning. Since the beginning of the century the "1,000-foot" ship had been discussed among shipowners and builders. A new Oceanic was planned in the late 1920s but abandoned in 1929 because its engines seemed impractical. In 1930 the French Line planned a quadruple-screw liner of 981.5 feet, which would represent another and, as it turned out, the final -ratchet in the expansion of the passenger liner. What came of that undertaking was the most interesting, and by wide agreement the most beautiful, large ship ever built. The Normandie was the first large ship to be built according to the 1929 Convention for Safety of Life at Sea and was designed so the forward end of the promenade deck served as a breakwater, permitting it to maintain a high speed even in rough weather. The French Line had established a policy with the lle de France of encouraging tourist travel through luxurious accommodations (changing from third class, which was little more than steerage with private cabins, to tourist class, which was simple but comfortable). The Normandie offered seven accommodation classes in a total of 1,975 berths; the crew numbered 1,345. The ship popularized a design style, Moderne, that emulated the new, nonhistorical art and architecture. The bow was designed with the U-shape favoured by the designer Vladimir Yourkevitch. Turboelectric propelling machines of 160,000 shaft horsepower allowed a speed of 32.1 knots in trials in 1935. In 1937 it was fitted with four-bladed propellers, permitting a 3-day, 22-hour and 7-minute crossing, which won the Blue Riband from the Europa.

To compete with the Normandie, in 1930 Cunard built the Queen Mary, which was launched in 1934. At 975 feet, it was Britain's first entry in the 1,000-foot category. The ship was never so elegant as its French rival and was a bit slower, but its luck was much better. The Normandie burned at the dock in New York in February 1942 while being refitted as a troopship. The Queen Mary was the epitome of the Atlantic liner before being retired to Long Beach, Calif., to serve as a hotel.

During World War II civilian transportation by sea was largely suspended, whereas military transport was vastly expanded. Great numbers of "Liberty"' and "Victory" ships were constructed, and at the close of the war surplus ships were returned to peacetime purposes. A sister ship of the Queen Mary, the Queen Elizabeth (at 83,673 tons the largest passenger ship ever built), was launched in 1938, but the interior had not been fitted out before the war came in 1939. First used as a troopship during the war, it was completed as a luxury liner after 1945 and operated with the Queen Mary

until the 1960s, when the jet airplane stole most of the trade from the Atlantic Ferry

Experience with the two Cunard liners in the years immediately after 1945 suggested the value in having two giant ships, of approximately the same size and with a speed that allowed a transatlantic run of four days or less, so that one ship might sail from New York and another from Europe weekly. This competition began when U.S. Lines launched the 53,329-ton United States. Though lighter than the Queen Elizabeth, greater use of aluminum in the superstructure and more efficient steam turbine engines allowed it to carry essentially the same number of passengers. The great advantage lay in its speed of 35.59 knots, which captured the Blue Riband from the Queen Mary in 1952, an honour the latter had held for 14 years.

Cargo ships

The history of other merchant marine activities parallels that of the great passenger liners. Freighter navigation, tanker navigation, naval ships, and the more recent near replacement of bulk cargo by container transport must be understood as a similar ever-improving technology. Iron followed wood as a construction material and was followed in turn by steel. Until very recently steam was a source of power, though the diesel engine was used for some ships as early as the Vandal of 1903. After 1900 there was a general division between the use of steam turbines in passenger liners and diesel engines in freighters. Europeans, particularly the Scandinavians, favoured the diesel internal-combustion engine, with its more economical fuel consumption, whereas American shipping companies tended to favour steam turbines because their labour costs were usually lower. The rapid rise in the cost of petroleum fuel after 1973 led to increased diesel-engine construction.

CARGO HANDLING

A commercial ship is usually a link in a "trade route" between distant points. Goods flowing in the route must be transferred to and from the sea link; they must also be given care while aboard the ship, and in turn they must not be a hazard to the ship and its crew.

Ship-shore transfer

Ancient cargo handling consisted almost exclusively of manually carrying cargo in single man-loads. For example, grain would be packed into sacks, each of a size that a man could carry on or off the ship on his shoulders. During the many centuries of dominance by sailing vessels, this process might be supplemented by hoisting with the ship's running rigging.

A line reeved through a block on the end of a yard might be led to a capstan by which a group of men might develop the force needed to lift an object far heavier than a single man-load.

Steam propulsion brought the steam winch and rigging that was intended solely for lifting cargo. The near-universal practice as it developed into the 20th century was to fit at least one pair of booms to serve each cargo hatchway, with each boom supported by rigging from a "king post," a short, stout mast whose sole function was boom support. Winches were mounted at the base of the king post. In action, the head of one boom would be rigged in fixed position over the hatchway; the head of the other would be rigged over the cargo-handling space on the pier alongside. A single lifting hook would be used, but a line would lead from the hook to each of the two boom-heads ("married falls") and thence each to its individual winch. By cooperative tensioning and slackening of the two lines, the winch operators could cause the hook to move vertically directly beneath either boom-head or horizontally between them. Cargo was thereby moved between cargo hold and pier with no gear movement save that of the hook and its two supporting lines. This scheme is known as burton ing

Burtoning was gradually replaced by systems better adapted to special cargoes. It remained in favour only for handling very heavy objects, so that the few ships that were built during the late 20th century for this type of cargo were usually fitted with at least one set of massive burtoning gear. The first cargo to require a unique handling system was petroleum. When first carried by sea, petroleum products were packaged in barrels that were handled in the traditional way, but the great volume to be moved quickly soon made this method of packaging and handling woefully inadequate. Since the late 19th century crude oil and its many products have been transported in bulk - i.e., without packaging. The hulls of tankers (as described above; see Types of ships: Tankers) are subdivided into a number of cells, or tanks, into which the liquid cargo is pumped through hoses by pumps mounted on the shore. Unloading is effected in the reverse manner by pumps mounted within the ship. Usually the only external cargo-handling gear is a pair of cranes or boom-post winch sets (one for each side of the ship) for handling the rather massive hoses that connect ship to shore facility.

The handling of many other commodities is more economical if done without packaging and with at least some of the continuous-flow features of pumping. For example, the loading of "dry bulk" commodities such as coal, ore, and grain is nearly always done from special shore facilities that pour them from a high elevation directly into the cargo holds of the ship.

Although the ship may be designed for the commodity, almost any cargo-carrying ship except the tanker can accept dry-bulk cargoes in this fashion.

Discharging dry bulk is another matter. It can be lifted from the holds by grab buckets, but conventional burtoning gear is ill-suited for the operation of these devices. For this reason cargo terminals that receive bulk cargo are often equipped with unloading cranes that are especially suited for grab-bucket operation or with vacuum hoses for moving low-density cargo such as grain. Special-purpose dry-bulk ships may therefore be without onboard cargo handling gear (see above Types of ships: Dry-bulk ships). Examples are the ships built before 1970 to carry iron ore on the Great Lakes of North America.

Since 1970 all such ships built for Great Lakes service have been fitted with their own unloading gear, and their example has been followed by many oceangoing carriers of dry bulk. The handling gear usually consists of a series of three conveyor belts. The first runs under the cargo holds, whence it may receive the cargo through hopper doors in the bottom. The second belt receives the cargo from the first and carries it to the main deck level of the hull. There it discharges to the belt that carries the cargo to the end of a discharge boom, whence the cargo is dumped onto the receiving ground ashore. The discharge boom can be slewed and elevated to reach the appropriate discharge point. A continuously acting onboard discharge system of this type can attain much higher discharge rates than grab buckets, and it avoids the damage to hull surfaces that is inevitable in bucket operation. Further, it gives a ship the flexibility to serve points that are not fitted with unloading gear.

The economic burden of handling nonbulk (or "break-bulk") cargoes in small batches is less evident than with cargoes that can be pumped, poured, or conveyed, but it was making itself very evident as early as the 1950s. The revenue lost from keeping a ship in port while it was slowly -and at high labour cost loaded or unloaded was one factor; another was the inherent labour-intensiveness of moving cargo horizontally in order to reach the hoisting gear and then loading and unloading rail cars and trucks at pierside. By I960 these factors had led to the introduction of standardized steel or aluminum containers 8 ? 8 ? 40 feet in the most common size -into which almost any nonbulk commodity could be stowed. The primary advantages in containerized shipping are the radical reduction in the number of cargo pieces to be handled and the high degree of protection the containers provide to the cargo items. Further advantages come from designing ships specifically for carriage of containers, shoreside terminals for their rapid transfer, and land vehicles for their carriage. These additional

steps were put into place quite rapidly after the container concept was introduced.

The essential feature of container ships is a width of hatchway that allows the containers to be handled solely by vertical lifting and lowering. This feature is usually supplemented by vertical guide rails that divide the cargo holds into cells that are sized precisely to hold stacks of containers. Labour within the hold is thereby reduced to insignificance. A consequence of great value is the freedom from "dunnage," the packing and bracing necessary to immobilize the usual odd-sized nonbulk cargoes. The highway trailers and railcars that form the land part of the trade route are similarly designed to fit the container, thereby making the shoreside handling rapid and virtually free of hands-on labour. Cranes and lifting gear designed for handling the standard-size containers are the third part of the rapid and economical ship/shore transfer. Cranes best-suited to this service are usually too massive for shipboard mounting and, hence, are part of the terminal. Typical container ships are therefore not fitted with cargo handling gear (see also above Types of ships: Container ships).In loading or unloading a barge-carrying ship, no shore terminal or any special shore vehicle is required, since delivery to or from the ship is by water. Where the seaport is at the mouth of an extensive river system, the ultimate terminus can be at a great distance from the ship. Points not adjacent to a navigable waterway can be served as well, although an extra step of transfer to or from a land link is required.

When the cargo has wheels - e.g., automobiles, trucks, and railway cars the most satisfactory cargo handling method is simply to roll it on and off. Vehicle ferries have been familiar in many waters for many centuries (see above, Types of ships: Ferries), and the growth since about I960 of an extensive international trade in motor vehicles has led to an extension of the ferry principle into roll-on/roll-off ships, which carry automobiles strictly as cargo yet load and unload them by driving them on their own wheels. Ships built for "ro-ro" traffic are fitted with doors in the hull (most often at the ends), internal ramps and elevators for deck-to-deck transfers, and external ramps to join the hull doors to the pier. Often the main or only door is in the stern, facing directly aft and fitted with a massive folding ramp exterior to the hull. The ramp is often equipped for slewing - i.e., rotating so that it can be landed on a pier alongside the ship.

Although many types of cargo are handled by gear that is designed for a particular type, general-purpose equipment retains a niche. However, the traditional burtoning gear has almost disappeared among new buildings in favour of cranes that are adapted from shoreside lifting machinery. This

alternative is usually less costly to build and maintain, and it requires less labour in operation.

BULK TERMINALS

The enormous increase in the marine transit of materials in bulk, with petroleum leading the way, has given rise to the development of special terminals for the loading and discharge of such materials. The principal factor influencing the design of these installations is the still-increasing size of the ships. A single example of the effect of this change on design limits will be sufficient. The "Queen" liners, long the world's largest ships, never drew more than 42 feet of water. Supertankers, on the other hand, when fully loaded, draw up to 72 feet. If these ships required berthing structures of the type provided for conventional cargo and passenger liners and if the formula relating the capital costs of such structures to the deepest draft were applied, the cost of building an appropriate berth for such a tanker would reach a figure more than six times the cost of the Queen Mary's old berth. Fortunately, the high mobility of the cargo renders such drastic and expensive measures unnecessary. Heavy capacity access for individual shore-based vehicles to carry away the cargo is not required nor does the provision of services for the relatively small crews who man these great ships present any problem. The berthing positions can therefore be sited well out from the shore in deep water, and the structure itself can be limited to that required to provide a small island with mooring devices.

In the case of oil terminals, the link to shore can be a relatively light pier or jetty structure carrying the pipelines through which the cargo is pumped ashore, with a roadway for access by no more than average-size road vehicles, which will probably be used in small numbers or even only one at a time. Because the ship itself carries the pumping machinery for delivering the cargo ashore, heavy mechanical gear for cargo handling is not required.

In the case of bulk carriers bringing solid commodities, such as iron ore, the problem is more complicated. Hoisting grabs for lifting the ore out of the holds are necessary, even though transit between ship and shore can still be effected by continuous conveyors, corresponding to pipelines. Heavier foundation work is probably necessary at the berthing point to carry this machinery, and, for this reason, ore terminals have not been built as far out in deep water as oil terminals. It seems unlikely that the size of ore carriers will reach anything like the dimensions already attained by supertankers.

The employment of piled structures to meet these requirements is almost universal, and a variety of techniques have evolved for handling and sinking into the seabed the long heavy piles required. At the sites likely to be chosen, penetration by piles may not be easy, particularly in places where most of the reasonably accessible deepwater sites tend to be located on the rockier shores.

One problem that arises is that of shelter in adverse weather conditions. While the ships themselves are reasonably robust, the relatively fragile berthing structures might break up, setting the ship loose, possibly without power immediately available, threatening disaster. As the cost of building breakwaters to protect sites in the depth of water required is likely to be prohibitive, the search has been for natural shelter. In the British Isles the sheltered creeks of the western shores, such as Milford Haven, Wales, have become valuable. Milford Haven had known little shipping other than fishing fleets since the early 19th century, but in the early 1970s it boasted four bulk oil terminals. Two supply refineries were built on the spot; the third pumps to a refinery 60 miles away

Another aspect of the terminals is the need for protection against the effects of unavoidable collision impacts. A slight impact from a vessel of these dimensions, by reason of the large kinetic energy of such a mass, can cause considerable damage to the light berthing structure. Much ingenuity and theoretical analysis have gone into devising fendering systems that will absorb this energy. Some systems use the displacement against gravity of large masses of material disposed pendulumwise in the berthing structure as the energy absorbent; others use the distortion by direct compression, shear, or torsion of heavy rubber shapes or sections; still others rely on the displacement of metal pistons against hydraulic or pneumatic pressure. The common feature of all the devices is that at least part of the energy absorbed is not dissipated but is used immediately to return the ship to its correct berthing position. This feature is not exhibited by the older forms of fenders, which relied on the compression and, in extreme cases, on the ultimate destruction of coiled rope or timber to absorb the impact. A major question is the exact ship velocity to be allowed for, the determination of which is primarily an exercise in probability, balancing the economics of designing to a specified velocity against the cost of repairs after impacts at greater velocities. The key factor is the frequency of such impacts, which can be determined only by experience.

CARGO CARRIERS

Cargo ships can be distinguished by the type of cargo they carry, especially since the means of handling the cargo is often highly visible. As noted below (see Ship operation: Cargo handling), the trend is toward specialization in this regard. One consequence is a proliferation in types of cargo vessel. The present discussion is limited to a few types that are represented by large numbers of ships and are distinctive in appearance.

Tankers

Ships that carry liquid cargo (most often petroleum and its products) in bulk are made distinctive by the absence of cargo hatches and external handling gear. When fully loaded they are also readily distinguishable by scant freeboard a condition that is permissible because the upper deck is not weakened by hatches. In essence, the tanker is a floating group of tanks contained in a ship-shaped hull, propelled by an isolated machinery plant at the stern. Each tank is substantially identical to the next throughout the length of the ship. The tanks are fitted with heating coils to facilitate pumping in cold weather. Within the tanks are the main, or high-suction, pipes, running several feet from the bottom to avoid sludge. F3elow them, low-suction piping, or stripping lines, removes the lowest level of liquid in the tank. Tanks are filled either through open trunks leading from the weather deck or from the suction lines with the pumps reversed. Because tankers, except for military-supply types, usually move a cargo from the source to a refinery or other terminal with few maneuvers en route, the machinery plant is called on only to produce at a steady rate the cruise power for the ship; consequently, considerable use of automatic controls is possible, thus reducing the size of the crew to a minimum. In view of the simplicity of inner arrangement, the tanker lends itself to mass production perhaps more than any other ship type. Because of the limited crew requirements and the low cost per ton for initial building and outfitting, the tanker has led the way in the rapid expansion in the size of ships. The decline of crude oil prices after the petroleum crisis of 1979 led in turn to a decline in preferred tanker size, but at that time a few ships had reached 1,300 feet (400 metres) in length, 80 feet in loaded draft, and a deadweight of 500,000 tons.

Along with the great increase in numbers and size of tankers have come specialized uses of tankers for products other than oil. A major user is the natural gas industry. For shipment, gas is cooled and converted to liquid at -260° F (-162° C) and is then pumped aboard a tanker for transit in aluminum tanks that are surrounded by heavy insulation to prevent

absorption of heat and to keep the liquid from evaporating during the voyage. The cost of these ships is rather high, because steel cannot be used for the containers. The cold liquid, in contact with steel, would make that material as brittle as glass. Aluminum is therefore used, sometimes backed by balsa wood, backed in turn by steel. A special nickel-steel alloy known as Invar also has been used in this application.

Container ships

Like tankers, container ships are characterized by the absence of cargo handling gear, in their case reflecting the usual practice of locating the container-handling cranes at shore terminals rather than aboard ship. Unlike the tanker, container ships require large hatches in the deck for stowing the cargo, which consists of standardized containers usually either 20 or 40 feet in length. Belowdecks, the ship is equipped with a cellular grid of compartments opening to the weather deck; these are designed to receive the containers and hold them in place until unloading is achieved at the port of destination. The ship is filled to the deck level with containers, the hatches are closed, and one or two layers of containers depending upon the size and stability of the ship, are loaded on the hatch covers on deck.

In a few hours the ship can be filled with containers destined for another port and can be under way. An additional economy is the low cost of the crew of the ship while it is in port awaiting loading or unloading. Further, because each ship can make more trips than before, container fleets require fewer vessels. There is also less pilferage and, hence, lower insurance rates and, finally, the assurance to the shipper that the shipment will not require any further handling until it arrives at its destination.

Among the disadvantages is the fact that each ship does not carry quite as much total volume of cargo with containers as with regular bulk stowage, because the containers themselves take space and, since they are square in shape, do not fill in all the nooks and crannies created by a ship-shaped hull form. Further, a rather substantial capital investment is needed in port facilities, such as special berths, weight-handling equipment, storage areas, and links to land transportation, all of which must be made by the ports that receive or ship via container ship if its full potential savings are to be realized.

Container ships are moderate-size merchant vessels built for speeds of greater than about 20 knots. Much use is made of small, compact, diesel power plants to provide more space for containers. Special equipment includes mooring winches to ensure accurate positioning of the ship under cranes in port and special tanks to list (tip) and trim (level) the ship to permit a symmetrical loading or unloading without excessive list or trim.

Barge-carrying ships

An extension of the container ship concept is the barge-carrying ship. In this concept, the container is itself a floating vessel, usually about 60 feet long by about 30 feet wide, which is loaded aboard the ship in one of two ways: either it is lifted over the stern by a high-capacity shipboard gantry crane, or the ship is partially submerged so that the barges can be floated aboard via a gate in the stern.

Roll-on/roll-off ships

Roll-on/roll-off ships, designed for the carriage of wheeled cargo, are always distinguished by large doors in the hull and often by external ramps that fold down to allow rolling between pier and ship. Because vehicles of all kinds have some empty space - and in addition require large clearance spaces between adjacent vehicles - they constitute a low-density cargo (a high "stowage factor") that demands large hull volume. The general outline of the ship, in view of its relatively low density of cargo, is rather "boxy," with a high freeboard and a high deckhouse covering much of the ship's superstructure, to afford more parking decks. To ensure stability, fixed ballast is usually included in these ships, along with water ballast to adjust load and stability. The engineering plants are commonly twin engines of compact variety, such as geared diesel, and they are arranged so that the engine spaces are at either side of the ship, allowing valuable free space between them for vehicle passage.

Dry-bulk ships

Designed for the carriage of ore, coal, grain, and the like, dry-bulk ships bear a superficial likeness to container ships since they often have no cargo handling gear and, unlike the tanker, have large cargo hatches. The absence of containers on deck is a decisive indicator that a vessel is a dry-bulk ship, but an observer may be deceived by the occasional sight of a dry-bulk ship carrying containers and other nonbulk cargo on deck. An incontrovertible indicator is the self-unloading gear, usually a large horizontal boom of open trusswork, carried by some bulk ships. On the Great Lakes of North America this gear is a near-universal feature of ships built since I960

General cargo ship

The once-ubiquitous general cargo ship continues to be built, though in modest numbers. Those built in the last third of the 20th century are usually fitted with deck cranes, which give them an appearance distinct from the more specialized ship types.

56 57

________ ЧАСТЬ 5. РАЗГОВОРНЫ

Е ТЕМЫ 4
КУРС______

I
.
Shipping
Documentation
(Грузовые документы)

1. Read and translate the phrases

Invoice, account, charges, note, receipt, to hand, to advise, consignor, to confirm, to await, to acknowledge, mate, document of title, consignment, ownership, negotiable, to trade, to endorse, endorsement, to prepay, on board, to damage, dirty, claused, to be responsible, buyer, security, superintendent, packing, to protect, in good condition.

2. Read and translate the text.

1. Now we can look at the main documents used in shipping. A freight
account
is an invoice sent by the shipping company to the exporter stating their charges. Once the goods are received on the dock, a shipping note
,
with a receipt, is handed to the Superintendent of the docks, advising him that the goods are to be shipped. A dock rece
ipt
,
(sometimes called a wharfinger's receipt) will be returned to the consignor confirming that the goods are stored and awaiting shipment. Once the goods are on board the ship, a mate's receipt
may be sent, acknowledging that the goods have been loaded. The mates receipt is often sent when the consignment is loaded directly, and serves as a document of title until the bill of lading is ready.

2.
The bill of lading
(b/l or blading) is the most important document in shipping. It is a document of title, i.e. gives ownership of the goods to the person named on it. If the words 'to order' are written on it, it means that it is a negotiable document and can be traded. In this case it will be endorsed on the back, and if the endorsement is blank, there will be no restrictions on ownership.

3. Л shipped bill of lading means that the goods have been loaded on to the ship. Sometimes the words 'shipped on board' are used to mean the same thing. In c.i.f. and с & f. transactions the words 'freight prepaid' are used to signify that the costs of shipment have been paid.

4. Bills are also marked 'clean' to indicate that the goods were taken on board in good condition. Dirty/ claused" indicates that on inspection there was found to be something wrong with the consignment, e.g. packing, or the goods were damaged. This statement protects the shipping company from claims that they were responsible for the damage or bad condition of the consignment. Usually two copies of the b/l are sent to the buyer or his bank, by air and sea for security.

3.

Read the text and answer the following questions:

1. What is freight account?

2. What does shipping note advise?

3. What is dock receipt?

4. Does mate's receipt acknowledge that the goods have been loaded?

5. What does Bill of lading show?

6. What types of bills of lading do you know?

4.

Read the text and explain what the phrases mean:

To order, freight prepaid, shipped in board, clean, dirty/ claused.

5.
Read the text and A) think of the suitable heading, B) write the summary.

По мере того, как дата отправления судна в рейс приближается, в порту формируются грузы к погрузке. Портовый агент принимает груш в соответствии с букировками, соблюдая очередность их регистрации в системе. Имеющаяся информация по отправляемым грузам сличается с их наличием в порту. Если отправителем надлежащим образом оформлены все необходимые на вывоз документы, то агент готовит коносамент, поручение на отгрузку грузов и другие грузораспорядительные документы, которые оформляются и регистрируются в системе управления линией. Для подготовки коносамента агент переносит букировку груза в раздел "Export documentation". При этом основная информация по отправителю, получателю, наименованию и характеристикам груза, а также по фрахту переносится из раздела букировок.. Агенту требуется лишь проверить составляющие фактической отправки, уточнить условия оплаты фрахта в порту отправления на "Pre-Paid " или в порту доставки на "Collect" и внести «вменения, если они имеются.

II. Marine Insurance (Морское страхование)

I. Read and translate the phrases:

Ocean marine insurance, cargo, hull, shipowner, protection, loss, damage, indemnity, perils, stranding, sinking, fire, collision, coverage, liability, policy, warehouse, danger, general averaging, custody, care, injury, crew, pier, dock, underwater cables, pollution, premium, marine repair, facility, shipyards, riots, underwriter, commodity, craft, maintenance of a vessel, waterborne, clause, shipper, transaction, insurer,

2.

Read and translate the paragraph about marine insurance.

Marine Insurance is insurance that generally applies to the risk associated with the transportation of goods. Over time, marine insurance has become a mixture of broad property coverages. These coverages are divided between land risks (inland marine) and sea risks (ocean marine). Inland marine insurance covers domestic risks associated with some element of transportation. It has been broadened to include perils incidental to transportation of property and now deals mostly with personal and commercial property of a mobile nature. Its most familiar form is the personal articles "floater," which offers an opportunity to insure many valuables, such as jewelry, furs, silverware, and fine arts, in a single policy.

3.

Read the text A) think of the most suitable heading, B) write the summary.

Ocean marine insurance is broken into three basic types: hull (involving loss or damage to the ship); cargo (involving loss or damage to cargoes); and protection and indemnity (involving liability of shipowners to others).

Hull insurance
affords protection to owners of all types of ships for loss or damage to their waterborne property. Typical perils insured against are stranding, sinking, fire, and collision. The hull policy offers an unusual coverage under its collision clause, which provides liability insurance for loss or damage to the other vessel involved in a collision, as well as to its cargo.

Cargo insurance
is available for shippers of goods moving by sea or air in international trade. The terms of insurance can be specific (for example, loss or damage resulting from sinking or fire) or "all risk" and can be underwritten for a single transaction (special policy) or on an open-ended contract (open cargo policy) for the international trader. The open cargo policy is the most common form used and usually covers the cargo "warehouse to warehouse," thus including exposure to those risks that are associated with land transportation as well.

When a ship is imperiled at sea because of fire, storm or other danger, all efforts must be made to keep the ship afloat. Such efforts often cause damage to portions of the ship or cargo. To prevent inequity, each owner assumes a share of the property damaged or lost as a result of actions taken to save the ship. This method of apportioning losses is known as general averaging.

Protection and indemnity
(called P & I) insurance protects the vessel owners against their liability for damage to cargo in their care and custody;

death or injury to passengers, crew, cargo loaders, and others; damage caused to piers, docks, underwater cables, and bridges; and, more recently, damage caused by pollution.

4.

Answer the questions:

1. What does ocean marine insurance include?

2. What is hull insurance?

3. When is cargo insurance available?

4. What does protection and indemnity insurance protect?

5.
Read the text and define the main idea.

Other forms of related coverages are included in ocean marine insurance, such as miscellaneous liability policies for owners of piers, docks, marine repair facilities, marinas, and shipyards. Policies on yachts can be underwritten by an ocean marine insurer (usually for larger pleasure craft), providing property and liability insurance in one policy. Powerboats and smaller pleasure craft are more often insured by inland marine insurers. Builder's risk insurance is available to cover damage to a ship under construction.

Common exclusions found in marine insurance policies are loss or damage resulting from strikes, riots, civil commotions, and war. These risks can be, and frequently are, insured through use of endorsements for additional premiums.

Ocean marine insurance rates and policy forms are not regulated by any government authority. Coverage can be tailored to suit the individual needs of ship and cargo owners, and rates are based on the underwriter's experience and judgment in a competitive worldwide marketplace.

Underwriters consider many factors in setting terms and rates for a risk. Factors common to all marine policies are the underwriter's experience with a commodity or vessel, the cargo owner's or shipowner's loss history, and current competition in the industry. Important factors relating to the ship include owner management, crew experience, trade routes, ports frequented, and age and maintenance of a vessel.

III. Documents of Title (Товарораспорядительные документы)

1. Translate the phrases.

Delivery, promise, payable, bearer, drawer, bill of exchange, claim, receipt, to certify, loading, terms of contract, carrier, consignor, port of destination, to transport the goods, obligation, to store, transfer, mate's receipt, dock receipt, transferor, holder, validity, on demand, order.

promissory note, determinable, defenses, to be turned in, valuable, party, intention, to pass, to create, on sight.

2.

Read the text and translate the text.

Negotiable Instruments are contracts in writing. They are transferable by endorsement or by delivery. In order to be negotiable, an instrument must meet several qualifications: it must be in writing; it must contain an unconditional promise to pay a certain sum in money, on demand or at a fixed and determinable future time; it must be made payable to bearer or order; and it must be signed by the maker of a promissory note or the drawer of a bill of exchange.

3.

Read the text and answer the questions:

1. What documents are called documents of title?

2. What is a bill of lading?

3. What document is issued on receiving the goods alongside or on board?

4. What does the bill of lading incorporate? What is a warehouse receipt?

Documents of title

Whereas negotiable instruments embody a claim for the payment of money, documents of title embody claims to goods. The most common documents are the bill of lading and the warehouse receipt. A bill of lading
is a receipt for goods delivered for transportation by a ship. On receiving the goods alongside or on board, a dock or mate's receipt is issued. Then it is turned in for the bill of lading proper. The bill of lading may certify receipt of the goods either on board the ship ("shipped on board") or alongside ("received for shipment"). This latter form of bill of lading is less valuable since it does not prove the fact and date of loading. Apart from proving receipt of the goods to be shipped, the bill of lading incorporates the terms of the contract concluded between the carrier and the consignor for the transportation of the goods to the port of destination. The warehouse
receipt
is a document that shares the essential traits of a bill of lading. But the duty to transport the goods is replaced by an obligation to store them. This receipt also embodies the claim for delivery of the goods and may, (if made out to order) be transferred by endorsement and delivery.

4.

Translate the text.

Draft (finance) is written order for the payment of money. It is drawn by one person, directing a second person or financial institution to pay a

third person. A draft is called a check when it is drawn on a bank. When money is transferred between institutions in different countries, a draft is called a bill of exchange. Whereas bills of exchange are always negotiable, drafts may be nonnegotiable. A draft is payable on sight or on demand; however, in some transactions drafts are often payable at a stated date in the future.

5. Read the te

xt A) think of the suitable heading, B) write the summary.

The consignee (the person to whom the goods are being shipped) may, by virtue of the bill of lading, demand delivery of the transported goods at the port of destination. In the simplest case the consignor sends the bill of lading by airmail to the consignee so that the latter may claim the goods on the arrival of the ship. The carrier may only deliver the goods to a person holding a duly negotiated bill of lading.

A bill of lading and the claim it represents may be transferred to another person by endorsement and delivery of the document.

If made out to bearer (which happens rarely), the bill may even be transferred by mere delivery. By such transfer all the rights and obligations embodied in the document are transferred to the new holder. The latter is entitled to demand delivery of the goods unless the carrier proves that the holder knew or through gross negligence was unaware of the transferor's lack of title to the bill. In contrast with the rules on negotiable instruments, an endorsement of a bill of lading does not make the endorser liable for any default of the carrier or previous endorsers. The bill represents the goods, and transfer of the bill is, therefore, equivalent to delivery of the goods to the transferee. It depends on the intention of the parties whether ownership in the goods or merely a security interest in them is to be transferred. A security interest is typically acquired by a bank, which gives credit on the security of the shipped goods. The above rules on bills of lading, though not formally unified, are essentially the same in all the seafaring nations. Most of them apply also to bills of lading issued in river navigation.

ЧАСТЬ 6. КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №4

Вариант 1

1. Образуйте

Participle

I от следующих глаголов перепишите и переведите на русский язык.

Образец
: to consign - consigning - отправляющий

То deal, to couple, to convey, to drive, to draw, to enter, to examine, to expand, to fasten, to control.

2. Перепишите и переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания.

Образец
: a broken cup разбитая
чашка

Worn out parts, delivered weight, landed weight, worked out cargo plan, unexecuted plan, unexpected circumstances, insured accident, unsolicited offer, unsold goods, thrown out claim.

3. Переведите и перепишите следующие словосочетания, обращая внимание на
Infinitive.

Образец:
texts
to
be
typed тексты, которые след
yem напечатать

Tо send the letter to inform them, the experiment to be carried out, a conference to participate in, to use powerful machinery to assemble huge parts, new branches to be developed.

4. Прочитайте и письменно переведите текст:

Shipping liabilities

I.
The Hague Rules signed at the Brussels Convention in 1924 govern liability for loss or damage to cargo carried by sea under a bill of lading, and state that the carrier will not be responsible under the following conditions:

Acts of war,
riots, civil disturbances;

Force majeure,
i.e. exceptional dangers such as storms, abnormal disturbances, or unusual hazards;

Negligence,
i.e. when the goods have not been properly packed, or were in a bad condition when packed;

Inherent vice,
i.e. when goods are subject to deterioration because of their content or nature. For example, fish can go bad, wood can carry insects, metal can oxidize.

2. The Hamburg Rules of 1978 have extended the shipping companies' liability for damage or delay to goods their charge' unless they can prove they took all measures to avoid problems. To be safe, the most companies insure their consignments under all risk cover, which protects them against most contingencies, but special "war insurance' is necessary for particularly dangerous zones.

5. Найдите в тексте причастия, определите их форму и функцию в предложении.

6. Найдите в тексте

Infinitive, определите форму и функцию инфинитива.

7.

Составьте аннотацию к тексту в письменном виде.

8.

Прочитайте текст и письменно составьте аннотацию.

Коммерческий
акт

Перевозчик несет имущественную ответственность (в виде неустойки, штрафа, возмещения убытков) в случае невыполнения плана перевозки грузов, несохранности принятого к перевозке груза, просрочки его доставки, утраты, недостачи, порчи или повреждения принятого к перевозке багажа, несоблюдения сроков доставки, увечья или иного повреждения здоровья, причинённого пассажиру, и др. Всякого рода требования клиента оформляются в виде претензии, предъявляемой им к перевозчику. В случае её отклонения или оставления без ответа в течение срока, установленного законом, клиент вправе обратиться с иском к перевозчику в суд или арбитраж. Обстоятельства, явившиеся основанием для предъявления претензии, оформляются коммерческими актами.

Вариант 2

1. Образуйте

Participle

I от следующих глаголов перепишите и переведите па русский язык.

Образец
: to consign consigning отправляющий

То fall, to govern, to head, to inspect, to handle, to issue, to lift, to inhale, to install, to inspect.

2. Перепишите и переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания.

Образец
: a broken cup - разбитая
чашка

Anticipated profit, fixed price, pledged goods, intaken weight, unfulfilled commitment, confirmed letter of credit, accepted draft, a concluded contract, entered ship, frozen cargo.

3. Переведите и перепишите следующие словосочетания, обращая внимание на

Infinitive.

Образец:
texts
to
be
typed тексты, которые следует напечатать

The house to he built, to work hard to pass the exam, to construct the bridge to connect two towns, a book to read, methods to be used.

4. Прочитайте и письменно переведите весь текст:

MARINE INSURANCE POLICIES

All consignments can be covered against all risks in the form of a valued or unvalued policy. These policies will fall under five main headings:

- Time policy. It insures goods or the vessel for twelve months, e.g. 1 May 1993 to 30 April 1994.

- Voyage policy. It covers the cargo on a voyage from, say, London to Kobe.

- Mixed policy. It covers a voyage from A to В and then for a further period of time. This may be used when a ship is going from Southampton to Bermuda, then doing a series of trips from Bermuda to ports along the North American coast.

- Floating policy. It gives cover for a particular amount, say, £ 500,000. It will not be necessary to continually write a new policy for each cargo that the

ship carries. As the cover nears its end, the insurance company advises their client, and the premium is paid to renew the policy.

- Open cover agreements. They are made between the underwriter and shipper, informing the underwriter, on a declaration form, whenever the shipment is made, and receiving the policy or certificate after shipment. Forwarding agents often have this kind of agreement with insurance companies, allowing them to make shipments. They inform the insurance company in arrears, i.e. after the shipment has been made. But the arrangement might only cover certain areas, e.g. North African ports, and consequently they would have to make special arrangements if a shipment was outside the agreed area.

5. Найдите в тексте причастия, определите их форму и функцию в предложении.

6. Найдите в тексте

Infinitive, определите форму и функцию инфинитива.

7.

Составьте аннотацию к тексту в письменном виде.

8.

Прочитайте текст и письменно составьте аннотацию

Транспортное право

Транспортное право, совокупность юридических норм, регулирующих отношения, связанные с использованием путей сообщения и транспортных средств. В сферу современного транспортного права включают: отношения сторон по договору перевозки грузов и пассажиров; вопросы планирования и организации перевозок; порядок расчетов по перевозкам и взыскания имущественных санкций за нарушение соответствующих плановых и договорных обязательств; отношения по использованию транспортных средств для иных (не связанных с договором перевозки) целей (например, рыбный промысел, добыча полезных ископаемых, буксирные, ледокольные и спасательные работы). Субъектами регулируемых транспортным правом отношений являются перевозчики (железные дороги, морские и речные пароходства, воздушно и автотранспортные предприятия), другие

административно хозяйственные подразделения транспорта (станции, порты, пристани), клиентура (отправители, получатели грузов и почты, пассажиры), органы управления транспортом (министерства, управления).

Вариант 3

1. Образуйте
Participle
I от следующих глаголов перепишите и переведите на русский язык.

Образец
: to consign consigning
- отправляющий

То mount, to maintain, to manage, to monitor, to notify, to overload, to overhaul, to note, to offer, to pack.

2. Перепишите и переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания.

Образец
: a broken cup разбитая
чашка

Excepted periods, excluded ports, insured Bill of Lading, perils insured, valued policy, forced ventilation system, specialized ships, exposed components, heated housing, hydraulically operated folding hatch.

3. Переведите и перепишите следующие словосочетания, обращая внимание на
Infinitive.

Образец:
texts
to
be
typed тексты, которые следует напечатать

The bridge to be constructed, the story to listen to, to save money to improve cargo handling facilities, containers to be unloaded, a program to be prepared in advance.

4. Прочитайте и письменно переведите весь текст.

Forwarding agents

1. Forwarding agents are used by exporters to arrange both import and export shipments. Their service include collecting the consignment, arranging shipment, and if required, packing and handling all documentation, including making out the bill of lading, obtaining insurance, sending commercial invoices and paying the shipping company for their clients. They also inform the importers forwarding agent that the shipment

is on its way by sending an advice note, and he, in turn, will inform his client, send the goods on to him, or arrange for them to be stored until collected. Many forwarding agents in importing countries also act as clearing agents, ensuring that the goods are cleared through the customs and are sent to the importer.

2. Because forwarding agents handle many shipments they can collect consignments for the same destination and get competitive 'groupage rates"

for sending a lot of consignments in one shipment. However, many exporters find it more convenient to deal direct with the forwarding agents in the importer's country, and some importers prefer to deal with their supplier's forwarding agent.

5. Найдите в тексте причастия, определите их форму и функцию в предложении.

6. Найдите в тексте
Infinitive, определите форму и функцию инфинитива.

7.
Составьте аннотацию к тексту в письменном виде.

8.
Прочитайте текст и письменно составьте аннотацию

Агентирование

Агентирование, агентское обслуживание, совершается за обусловленное вознаграждение одним (юридическим или физическим) лицом (агентом) по поручению другого лица (доверителя-принципала) от его имени, за его счёт и в его интересах. Характер, объём, порядок и условия агентирования определяются договором между доверителем и агентом. Наиболее распространено агентирование в сфере судоходства обслуживание морских судов в портах, когда агент по поручению судовладельца организует выполнение таможенных, санитарных, карантинных, портовых и других формальностей, связанных с заходом и грузовыми операциями судна в порту; обеспечивает для проводки судов наем лоцмана, буксиров; содействует быстрейшей погрузке-выгрузке судна; организует снабжение судов топливом, материалами, водой, продовольствием; составляет и оформляет транспортные и другие необходимые судну документы (коносаменты, манифесты, таймшиты, акты); информирует судовладельцев о прибытии и отправлении судов, о ходе погрузочно-разгрузочных работ и об обычаях, сборах, правилах и обязательных постановлениях, действующих в данном порту, а также выполняет другие поручения судовладельца или капитана.

Вариант 4

1. Образуйте

Participle

I от следующих глаголов перепишите и переведите на русский язык

Образец
: to consign
- consigning
- отправляющий

То own, to perform, to produce, to push, to remove, to repair, to roll, to save, to seal, to stack.

2. Перепишите и переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания.

Образец
: a broken cup разбитая
чашка

Insured value, postdated Bill of lading, unvalued policy, packaged cargo, combined ships, divided circle, unitized cargo, rolled vehicles, fixed ramp, specialized port cargo handling complexes.

3. Переведите и перепишите следующие словосочетания, обращая внимание на

Infinitive.

Образец:
texts
to
be
typed тексты, которые следует напечатать

The new device to be introduced, reason to consider, to use water to drive dynamos which generate electricity, the issues to be solved, the question to be answered.

4. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст.

Lloyd's of London

1. Lloyd's is not an insurance company, but an international insurance market consisting of over 260 approved insurance brokers' firms and more than 20,000 underwriters. Their activities are controlled by Lloyd's Council which came into being after the Lloyd's Act 1982, and whose appointments are confirmed by the Governor of the Bank of England.

2. If insurance is to be effected through a Lloyd's underwriter, the transaction has to go through a Lloyd's broker. This broker will work on a commission basis and will contact one or more underwriters on behalf of his client to get a competitive rate. Underwriters finance the insurance. It means they will pay the claims, and take the premiums as their fees. They usually work in syndicates, spreading the risk. There are more than four hundred syndicates with over 160 involved in marine insurance, 170 in non-marine,

50 in aviation, and 46 in UK motor insurance. Members of syndicates write the insurance details on a Lloyd's slip. This slip is sent to the Lloyd's Policy Signing Office where it is checked and signed on behalf of the syndicate concerned. The underwriter gets a percentage of the premium he guarantees. If, for example, he accepts 15% of a £1,000 policy, he will be responsible for £150 compensation in the event of a claim and will receive 15% of the premium.

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Infinitive, определите форму и функцию инфинитива.

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Договор о перевозке

Перевозка, договор о перевозке, один из видов гражданско- правовых договоров. Договоры о перевозке подразделяются по видам транспорта: договоры железнодорожной, речной, морской, автомобильной и воздушной перевозки; по перевозимым объектам (субъектам): договоры о перевозке пассажиров, грузов, почты и багажа; по числу участвующих в перевозке видов транспорта: договоры о перевозке местного сообщения, прямого сообщения и прямого смешанного сообщения; по срокам действия договора: разовые договоры и длительные (например, годовой договор на автомобильном транспорте, навигационный договор на речном и морском транспорте, специальный договор на воздушном транспорте). По договору перевозки груза транспортная организация (перевозчик) обязуется доставить вверенный ей отправителем груз в пункт назначения и выдать его управомоченному на получение груза лицу (получателю), а отправитель обязуется уплатить за перевозку груза установленную плату. Порядок предъявления к перевозке грузов, сроки их доставки и выдачи грузополучателю регламентируются Правилами перевозок, утверждаемыми транспортными

министерствами (например, Общие правила перевозок грузов автомобильным транспортом от 30 июля 1971).

Вариант 5

1 Образуйте

Participle

I от следующих глаголов перепишите и переведите на русский язык.

Образец
: to consign - consigning отправляющий

То stow, to shirt, to rig, to rotate, to secure, to top, to swing, to stretch, to safeguard, to retard.

2. Перепишите и переведите на русский язык следующие словосочетания.

Образец
: a broken cup разбитая
чашка

Refrigerated cargo, combined framing, reduced capacity, shore based traveling gantry cranes, cleaned holds, damaged cases, stowed bales, counted drafts, signed papers, repaired covering.

3. Переведите и перепишите следующие словосочетания, обращая внимание на

Infinitive.

Образец:
texts
to
be
typed тексты, которые следует напечатать

The instrument to be used, a place to live in, goods to be transported, to stop to have a rest, to be first to come.

4. Прочитайте и устно переведите весь текст.

CLAIMS

1. As we have seen, all risk policies generally cover against every eventuality. However, clauses should be studied carefully. If a policy is free from particular average, in the case of deliberate damage, i.e. damage caused to save the rest of the cargo, as in the case of a fire in a ship, only total loss will be paid by the insurance company, and part loss in the case of major disasters, e.g. fire or collision. If the policy has a with particular average clause, then partial loss will be compensated. Therefore, a policy with a WPA clause will cost more.

2. As in the case of large claims in non-marine insurance average adjusters, i.e. assessors, are called in to examine damage and estimate compensation. In a c.i.f. transaction, the exports transfer their right to compensation, as the importer holds the bill of lading. In f.o.b. and c.&f. transactions importers hold the insurance policy as they arrange their own insurance.

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Infinitive, определите форму и функцию инфинитива.

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Коносамент

Коносамент (от франц. connaissement) документ, содержащий условия договора морской перевозки. Наиболее распространён во внешней торговле. Выдаётся перевозчиком отправителю после приёма груза к перевозке, служит доказательством приёма груза и удостоверяет факт заключения договора. Коносамент является товарораспорядительным документом, предоставляющим его держателю право распоряжения грузом. Коносаменты могут быть: именными, в них указывается определённый получатель, передача их осуществляется при помощи передаточной надписи индоссамента или в иной форме с соблюдением правил, установленных для передачи долгового требования: ордерными (выдаются «приказу» отправителя или получателя), передача их также осуществляется посредством передаточной надписи; на предъявителя (передаётся посредством фактического вручения новому держателю коносамента). В СССР порядок составления коносамента и его необходимые реквизиты были установлены Кодексом торгового мореплавания РФ.

ЧАСТЬ 7. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ И ПЕРЕВОДА 4 КУРС

CARRIAGE
OF
GOODS

Carriage of goods in law is the transportation of goods by land, sea, or air. The relevant law governs the rights, responsibilities, liabilities, and immunities of the carrier and of the persons employing the services of the carrier.

Historical development

Until the development of railroads, the most prominent mode of transport was by water. Overland transportation of goods was relatively slow, costly, and perilous. For this reason, the law governing carriage of goods by sea developed much earlier than that governing inland

transportation. The preclassical Greek city-states had well-developed laws dealing with the carriage of goods by sea, along with specialized commercial courts to settle disputes among carriers, shippers, and consignees. The sea laws of the island of Rhodes achieved such prominence that a part of them was carried, many centuries later, into the legislation of Justinian. In Roman law the contract of carriage did not achieve the status of a distinct contractual form; jurisconsults (legal advisers) dealt with it in the framework of the contractual forms known to them, such as deposit and hire of services or of goods. There was special regulation only insofar as the responsibility of the carrier was concerned: shipowners (nautae). along with innkeepers and stable keepers, were liable without fault for destruction of or damage to the goods of passengers. Nevertheless, they could be relieved of responsibility by proving that the loss was attributable to irresistible force.

In English common law the principles applying to the relationship between the carrier and his customers go back to a time when neither railways nor canals existed. Whether influenced by Roman law or derived quite independently, early English decisions imposed on carriers the obligation not only to carry goods but to carry them safely and to deliver them in good condition to the owner or his agent. The carrier was always liable for the loss of the goods and also liable for any damage to the goods, unless he could prove that the loss or damage had resulted from an excepted cause. This duty of the carrier to deliver the goods safely was considered to exist without regard to obligations arising under any contract between the parties. It was imposed upon him by the law because he had been put in possession of another's goods. In legal language, this meant that the carrier was considered to be a bailee, who, in certain circumstances, was liable to the bailor if he failed to deliver the goods intact. This law of bailment developed in England long before the law of contract. The contractual element of bailment was not stressed until after the 17th century. Today, in common-law countries, the rights and liabilities of shippers consignees, and carriers are in the large majority of cases based on a contract of carriage, whether express or tacit. The mere fact that, in the ordinary course of his business, a carrier accepts goods for carriage and delivery implies the making of a contract of carriage. The right of the carrier to claim the freight depends on this contract, and this contract is also the foundation of his duty to carry the goods safely to their destination. But there remain vestiges of bailment in the law of carriage of goods. Thus, the owner of the goods, though not a party to the contract of carriage between the shipper and the carrier, may sue the carrier for loss of or damage to his goods

In civil-law countries, the contract of carriage first achieved distinct form in the early 19th century. The French Civil Code of 1804, following the Romanist tradition, still dealt with the contract of carriage as a species of the contract for the hire of services and further subjected carriers to the same obligations as depositaries; but the French Commercial Code of 1807 established a special legal regime for professional carriers, making the contract of carriage a distinct contractual form. Subsequent civil and commercial legislation in civil-law countries gave expression to the same idea. Today, in the civil-law world, the contract of carriage may be regarded as a variation of the contract for the hire of services, namely, a contract whereby one of the parties engages to do something for the other party in consideration of a price agreed upon between them. Specifically, the contract of carriage of goods may be defined as the contract whereby a professional carrier engages to carry goods in accordance with a determined mode of transport and within a reasonable time, with the understanding that the carriage of the goods is the principal object of the contract.

In France and in a great number of countries following the French system, a contract of carriage requires the presence of three indispensable elements: carriage, control of the operation by the carrier, and a professional carrier. If any of these elements is missing, the contract is one for the hire of services rather than a special contract of carriage. The classification of a contract as a contract of carriage involves significant legal consequences. Exculpatory clauses in a contract of carriage are ordinarily null and void; receipt of the goods by the consignee and payment of the freight without protest within a designated period of time exclude all actions against the carrier; actions that may be brought against the carrier are subject to a short period of limitation, that is, one year; the carrier has a privilege, which corresponds to a common-law lien, on the things carried for the payment of the freight; and, finally, either party to a contract of carriage may demand that experts determine the condition of the things carried or intended to be carried.

Characteristics of carriage Common-law common carrier

In English and American law, common carriers are distinguished from other carriers. A common carrier is one who holds himself out as being ready to carry goods for the public at large for hire or reward. In England carriers of goods by land that are not classified as common carriers are termed private carriers; carriers of goods by sea or by inland water that are not classified as common carriers may be public carriers, namely,

professional carriers who do not hold themselves out as ready to serve the general public or persons who carry goods incidentally to their main business or for one consignor only. In the United States distinction is made among common carriers, contract carriers and private carriers. A person who engages to carry the goods of particular individuals rather than of the general public is a contract carrier; a person who carries his own goods is a private carrier. Both a common carrier and a contract carrier are engaged in transportation as a business. The basic difference between them is that a common carrier holds himself out to the general public to engage in transportation, whereas a contract carrier does not hold himself out to serve the general public. The exact boundary between common carriage and contract carriage is not always clear.

Л person may be a common carrier although he limits the kinds of goods that he is ready to carry, the mode of transport, or the route over which he is prepared to carry. He is a common carrier only to the extent that he holds himself out as ready to carry goods for the public. It is indispensable for the classification that he accepts reward for the carriage and that his principal undertaking is the carriage of goods. Ancillary carriage for purposes of warehousing does not make one a common carrier. Unless the law provides otherwise, a carrier may cease at any time to be a common carrier by giving notice that he is no longer ready to carry goods for the public at large.

The distinction between common carriers and carriers that are not classified as common carriers, such as private carriers or contract carriers, involves significant legal consequences in the light of both common law and legislation. Common carriers are everywhere subject to strict economic regulation. Thus, a common carrier is forbidden in the United States to charge unreasonably high rates or to engage in unjust discrimination, whereas a contract carrier may charge rates as high as he pleases and may discriminate among his customers, provided that none of his discriminatory rates in motor and domestic water transportation is unreasonably low. In both England and the United States, a common carrier must serve everyone who makes a lawful request for the services he offers but a private or contract carrier may select his customers; a common carrier is liable for any loss or damage to the goods during carriage, unless the damage or loss is attributable to certain excepted causes, whereas a contract carrier or private carrier is only liable for damage or loss through his negligence; contractual clauses relieving the carrier from liability may have different effects depending on the status of the carrier as common carrier or private carrier; and, finally, the common carrier has a common-law lien on the goods,

whereas other carriers may have none in the absence of contractual provision or may have a less extensive lien than that of the common carrier.

Civil-law public carrier

The concept of common carrier has no exact equivalent in civil-law systems. But, if one looks to substance rather than form or terminology, one may conclude that the concept of public carrier in civil-law systems is a functional equivalent of the concept of common carrier. A public carrier is a professional carrier of goods or passengers; he is distinguished from a private carrier who either carries his own goods exclusively or carries goods incidentally to his other business. Generally, the scope of private carriage is narrowly defined so that most carriage operations fall under the rubric of public carriage; this ensures maximum application of rules designed to safeguard the public interest in the carriage of goods. Public carriers, like common carriers in common-law countries, are subject to strict economic regulation and are under the supervision and control of administrative agencies. When a public carrier is also a professional merchant normally an individual or a private corporation, he assumes all the duties, obligations, and liabilities attaching to merchants under applicable commercial codes or special legislation. Like a common carrier, a public carrier must accept the goods lawfully delivered to him for carriage, either because he is held to a permanent offer made to the public or because he is under obligation to carry by virtue of public legislation or administrative regulations. Unlike common carriers, public carriers are not liable for loss or damage to the goods without fault; this difference is more apparent than real, because carriers in civil-law systems are presumed to be liable, unless they prove that the loss or damage occurred without their fault.

Duties and liabilities of carriage

Common carriers and public carriers are under duty to carry goods lawfully delivered to them for carriage. The duty to carry does not prevent carriers from refusing to transport goods that they do not purport to carry generally. Carriers may indeed restrict the commodities that they will carry. Further, everywhere, carriers may refuse to carry dangerous goods, improperly packed goods, and goods that they are unable to carry on account of size, legal prohibition, or lack of facilities.

Liability for safety of the goods

Everywhere, carriers incur a measure of liability for the safety of the goods. In common-law countries carriers are liable for any damage or for the loss of the goods that are in their possession as carriers, unless they

prove that the damage or loss is attributable to certain excepted causes. The excepted causes at common law include acts of God, acts of enemies of the crown, fault of the shipper, inherent vices of the goods, and fraud of the shipper. In maritime carriage perils of the sea and particularly jettison are added to the list of excepted causes. All these terms have technical meanings. An act of God is an operation of natural forces so unexpected that no human foresight or skill may be reasonably expected to anticipate it. Acts of enemies of the crown are acts of enemy soldiers in time of war or acts of rebels against the crown in civil war; violent acts of strikers or rioters are not an excepted cause. Fault of the shipper as an excepted cause is any negligent act or omission that has caused damage or loss for example, faulty packing. Inherent vice is some default or defect latent in the thing itself, which, by its development, tends to the injury or destruction of the thing carried. Fraud of the shipper is an untrue statement as to the nature or value of the goods. And jettison in maritime transport is an intentional sacrifice of goods to preserve the safety of the ship and cargo.

When goods are damaged or lost as a result of an excepted cause, the carrier is still liable if he has contributed to the loss by his negligence or intentional misconduct. In this case, however, the burden of proof of the carrier's fault rests on the plaintiff.

In civil-law countries the carrier under a contract of carriage is ordinarily bound as a warrantor for any damage to or loss of the goods carried, unless he proves that the damage or loss has resulted from irresistible force (force majeure), the inherent vice of the goods, or from the fault of the shipper or of the consignee. This contractual liability of the carrier under the general law is frequently modified by special legislation or by international conventions. In addition to his contractual liability, the carrier may, of course, incur liabilities that arise without contract. The carrier's contractual liability is often termed an ""obligation of result," because the carrier, or a warrantor, is bound to make full restitution, unless he manages to exculpate himself in part or in whole.

Limitations of liability

In the absence of contrary legislation or decisions, carriers in common-law jurisdictions have been traditionally free to exclude or limit their liabilities by contract. In civil-law jurisdictions, as a rule, contractual clauses tending to limit liability for negligence or for willful misconduct have been considered null and void. Today, in most countries, municipal legislation and international conventions ordinarily limit the liability of certain carriers to a specified amount per weight, package, or unit of the

goods carried. In this way, the liability of certain carriers has largely become standardized, at least in international carriage of goods.

Parties are free to stipulate that the carrier shall be liable in excess of any statutory limitation, but clauses that are designed to reduce the liability of the carrier below statutory limits are ordinarily null and void. Statutory limitations cover both direct and indirect losses incurred by shippers or consignees. In most legal systems, the benefit of statutory limitation of liability is unavailable if the goods have been delivered to the wrong individual or if the carrier is guilty of either intentional misconduct or gross negligence.

The liability of a maritime carrier for loss or damage to goods carried under a bill of lading is limited in most countries to a specified amount per package or unit by application of the provisions of the Brussels Convention of 1924 or by municipal legislation containing rules similar to those of the convention. The liability of air carriers for loss or damage to goods carried in international trade is almost everywhere controlled by the provisions of the Warsaw Convention of 1929, as amended by the blague Protocol of 1955. Air carriage in domestic trade is subject either to the rules of the international convention or to municipal legislation patterned after the model of the convention. In most countries the liability of railroad carriers is limited by legislation or administrative regulations that regularly become part of the contract of carriage. International carriage of goods by railroad is largely subject to the various Berne Conventions, the first of which was adopted in 1890, Most European nations have adhered to these conventions.

Components of the carriage of goods

The law of carriage of goods covers a variety of matters. Delay and misdelivery

In all legal systems, carriers incur liability for delay in delivering the goods to the consignee. Statutes, international conventions, administrative regulations, or even contractual agreements may fix the period of transportation with reference to the applicable means of carriage and determine the consequences of the delay. Under the law of contracts, failure of the carrier to deliver the goods within the prescribed period of time will be treated as a breach of contract.

In common-law jurisdictions, if the delay is caused by a deviation, the carrier is ordinarily answerable for damages. A deviation takes place when the carrier leaves the route that he has expressly or impliedly agreed to follow or when he goes past his destination. In civil-law jurisdictions carriers are not bound to follow any particular route in the absence of

special legislation or contractual agreement. Thus, a deviation from the normal route does not itself constitute a fault of the carrier; if the deviation causes a delay, the carrier will be liable only if he is at fault.

Like delay, misdelivery engages the responsibility of the carrier. Misdelivery is the delivery of the goods by the carrier to the wrong person or to the wrong place.

Dangerous goods

Dangerous goods are those that, from their nature, are liable to cause damage to persons, to means of transport, or to other goods. In all legal systems, the carriage of dangerous goods has given rise to distinct problems and to the development of special rules.

In civil-law countries, legislation or administrative regulations define categories of goods considered to be dangerous and either exclude their shipment by public carriers or determine the conditions under which they may be shipped. In common-law jurisdictions, the shipper is liable to the carrier for all damage caused by dangerous goods delivered for shipment, unless he has declared the dangerous nature of the goods at the time of delivery, and the carrier has accepted them with knowledge of their nature.

Components of the carriage of goods
Carriage by two or more carriers

Goods frequently reach their destination after they have passed through the hands of two or more carriers. This may happen when the shipper has contracted with several carriers, when the shipper has authorized one of the carriers to act as his agent with other carriers, or when the carrier, without authority, delivers the goods to another carrier.

If the carrier, without authority, delivers the goods to another carrier, he is liable to the shipper for any misdelivery by the second carrier and for any loss or damage suffered by the owner of the goods during the time in which the goods were in the possession of the second carrier. This means that the carrier cannot relieve himself from liability by performing the contract through the services of an agent. Moreover, delivery of the goods to another carrier may be a breach of contract by virtue of an implied or express condition that the carriage shall be effected by the vehicles of the carrier. Such a condition is implied in maritime transports.

Carrier's liens

The law strives everywhere to secure payment of the freight to a carrier who has carried the goods to their destination. In common-law jurisdictions, the carrier may have to this effect a common-law lien, a

statutory lien or even a contractual lien. In civil-law jurisdictions, the carrier has, ordinarily, a privilege on the things carried.

A common carrier in common-law jurisdictions has a common-law lien under which he is entitled to retain possession of the goods until earned freight is paid to him. The carrier is not entitled to sell the goods or to use them; parties, however, may agree that the carrier shall have an active lien namely, that he shall have the right to sell the goods. Thus, in maritime carriage in the United States, the shipowner is clearly entitled to seize and sell the goods carried by him in case of nonpayment of the freight. Parties may agree that the carrier shall have no lien at all or that he shall have a general lien on the goods carried, namely, a lien covering debts other than the pending freight. After the lien is exercised, the carrier has the rights and duties of a bailee. He may thus be liable for loss or damage occasioned by his negligence, and he may be entitled to recover expenses that were reasonably necessary for the preservation of the goods.

Carriers in civil-law jurisdictions ordinarily have a privilege on the goods carried by them for the payment of the freight and of incidental expenses. In France and in systems following the French model, this privilege is available only to professional carriers who carry goods by contract of carriage. The civil-law privilege differs from a common-law lien in that it confers on the carrier power and authority to sell the goods for the satisfaction of his claims. The privilege covers the whole shipment as determined by the documents of transport and is extinguished upon delivery of the goods to the consignee. Quite apart from the privilege the carrier in civil-law jurisdictions may be entitled, under the general law of obligations, to refuse delivery of the goods until payment of the freight; moreover, he may secure payment of the freight by a variety of contractual arrangements.

Carrier's role as warehouseman and bailee

In all legal systems, the peculiar liabilities imposed on carriers extend only for the duration of the carriage, that is. from the time the goods are delivered to the carrier for shipment until the carrier has taken all reasonable steps to deliver them to the consignee. This means that the carrier is not under his liability as a carrier for the whole time during which the goods may be in his possession. Indeed, goods may be delivered to a carrier for safekeeping before the carriage begins or after it terminates in accordance with the terms of a special contract that may qualify as bailment in common-law jurisdictions and as a deposit in civil-law countries. Further, goods may be in the possession of the carrier because the consignee has

unjustifiedly refused to take delivery, in which case the carrier may occupy the position of an involuntary bailee or depositary.

Generally, a carrier who is in possession of the goods before the beginning or after the end of the carriage is a warehouseman, and he is liable accordingly. In common-law jurisdictions the liability of a warehouseman is that of an ordinary bailee. In most cases a bailee, namely, a person entrusted with the goods of another, is not liable for the loss of or damage to the goods in his possession, unless the prejudice was caused by his intentional misconduct or negligence. In civil-law jurisdictions, if the parties agree that the carrier shall be in possession of the goods as a warehouseman before the beginning or after the end of the carriage, they form in effect a contract of deposit for reward, which is distinguishable from a contract of carriage. The elements of the contract of deposit and the rights and liabilities of the parties are dealt with in civil codes; exoneration clauses are valid under the conditions of the general law, and the period of limitation of actions is longer than one year. The depositary' for reward is generally liable for intentional misconduct and negligence.

Measure of damages

Damages for the breach or nonperformance of a contract of carriage ordinarily are determined by application of the general rules of the law of contracts. Exceptional provisions applicable in case of breach of a contract of carriage are rare; they are mostly encountered in international conventions.

Bills of lading

Many shipments are made under bills of lading, issued by the carrier to the shipper upon delivery of the goods for shipment. The shipper is entitled to demand issuance of a bill of lading, unless his right is excluded by the contract of carriage. The bill of lading is, in the first place, an acknowledgment by a carrier that he has received the goods for shipment. Secondly, the bill of lading is either a contract of carriage or evidence of a contract of carriage. Thirdly, if the bill of lading is negotiable, as usually happens in carriage by sea, it controls possession of the goods and is one of the indispensable documents in financing the movement of commodities and merchandise throughout the world.

The bill of lading usually states the quantity, weight, measurements, and other pertinent information concerning the goods shipped. It frequently contains the statement that the goods have been shipped in apparent good order and condition. In this case, the carrier is not allowed to contradict the statement as to defects that were reasonably ascertainable at the time of

delivery against an endorsee of the bill who relied on the statement. The bill of lading may be signed by the master or by a broker as agent of the carrier. As a receipt, the bill of lading is prima facie evidence that the goods have been delivered to the carrier; the burden of proof of nondelivery thus rests on the carrier

In some jurisdictions the bill of lading is regarded as the contract of carriage itself. In other jurisdictions it is regarded merely as evidence of the contract of carriage; hence, oral testimony may be admissible to vary the terms of the contract evidenced by the bill of lading. When goods are shipped under a charter party or other document and a bill of lading is issued to cover the same goods, the bill of lading may ordinarily be regarded as a mere receipt. The terms of the contract are embodied in the charter party or other document, unless the parties intended to vary the terms of the agreement by the issuance of a bill of lading. A bill of lading that has been endorsed is ordinarily considered to contain the terms of the contract between the carrier and the endorsee.

At common law, a bill of lading functions as a semi-negotiable instrument. Delivery of the bill of lading to a transferee for valuable consideration transfers the ownership of the goods to the transferee, but the transferee cannot acquire a better title than that of the transferor. Under statutes, however, and under international conventions, bills of lading are in all legal systems fully negotiable instruments, unless they show on their face that they are not negotiable. When a bill of lading is negotiable, it confers a privileged status on the good faith purchaser, known as the holder in due course. A carrier who has issued a nonnegotiable bill of lading normally discharges his duty by delivering the goods to the named consignee; the consignee need not produce the bill or even be in possession of it. But a carrier who has issued a negotiable bill of lading will be discharged only by delivery to the holder of the bill, because, in a way, the goods are locked up in the bill of lading. The carrier who delivers goods without the bill of lading remains liable in common-law jurisdictions to anyone who has purchased the bill for value and in good faith, before or after the improper delivery. In civil-law jurisdictions, in case of an improper delivery, the carrier may remain liable to the endorsee of the bill of lading, even if the endorsee is himself not the legal owner of the bill but merely a finder or a thief.

Freight or forwarding agents

Shippers frequently engage the services of freight or forwarding agents, namely, persons who undertake for a reward to have the goods carried and delivered at their destination. The services of these persons are

ordinarily engaged when the carriage of the goods involves successive carriers or use of successive means of transport.

A forwarding agent makes contracts of carriage for his principal. He may be a carrier or he may be merely a forwarding agent. When a carrier enters into a contract with the shipper by which he undertakes to carry goods in circumstances that involve an obligation on his part to hand over the goods to another carrier, he may be regarded as acting to some extent in the capacity of a forwarding agent. Conversely, when a forwarding agent carries the goods himself, he is to that extent a carrier and incurs the liabilities of a carrier.

In common-law jurisdictions a forwarding agent who is not a carrier is not responsible for what happens to the goods once they are handed over to a carrier with whom the forwarding agent has made a contract for his principal. By his transaction with the carrier, the forwarding agent establishes a direct contractual relationship between his principal and the carrier. Under the principles of the law of agency, the forwarding agent is under obligation toward his principal to conclude the contract on the usual terms. He is under no obligations, in the absence of an express contractual provision, to insure the goods. If, exceptionally, a forwarding agent acts as a carrier throughout the journey and uses other carriers on his own account, he is liable to the owner for any loss or damage to the goods during carriage. The extent of his liability depends on whether he is a common carrier or a contract carrier. If he is a common carrier, his liability to the owner of the goods may be heavier than the liabilities he can enforce against the carriers he has engaged.

In civil-law jurisdictions forwarding agents are clearly distinguished from carriers, and the contracts they make are clearly distinguishable from contracts of carriage. The profession of a forwarding agent, however, is not exclusive; thus, most frequently, carriers qualify as forwarding agents and vice versa. Л forwarding agent has ordinarily a privilege on the goods under his control that is much broader and more effective than the privilege of the carrier. He has, in the absence of contrary contractual provision freedom of choice of the means of transport and of particular carriers. His main obligation is to have the goods carried to their destination and delivered to the consignee. In the discharge of this obligation he is generally entitled to engage the services of another forwarding agent. The forwarding agent is liable to his principal for any violation of his obligations resulting from negligence or intentional misconduct. He is relieved from liability if he proves that the loss or damage was occasioned by irresistible force. The liability of the forwarding agent for negligence may be excluded by

contractual stipulations but not his liability for grave fault and intentional misconduct. A forwarding agent is considered as a carrier to the extent that he carries the goods himself and to that extent he incurs the liabilities of a carrier. In contrast with the rule in common-law jurisdictions, the forwarding agent in civil-law countries is fully responsible for loss or damage suffered by the goods in the hands of carriers that the forwarding agent has engaged for the performance of the contract with his principal, unless the services of the particular carrier were requested by the principal. The liability of the forwarding agent does not exceed that of the carrier he has engaged, and, if the carrier is exonerated by virtue of an excepted cause, so is the forwarding agent.

Mixed-carrier transportation

The expression mixed-carrier transportation refers to situations in which goods are carried to their final destination by two or more means of transport, such as road and sea or rail, sea, and air. There are at least two possibilities. The successive carriers may have no common juridical link, as when the shipper has contracted with each carrier independently or when the shipper has contracted with a forwarding agent. In these cases, each carrier is subject to his own regime and has his own rights and duties toward the shipper or forwarding agent. A second possibility is that the successive carriers may be bound by a common juridical link toward the shipper or owner of the g(x>ds by virtue of directly applicable legal or contractual provisions or by virtue of the fact that the goods travel under a single document of transport, as a through bill of lading. In these cases, municipal laws in civil-law jurisdictions tend toward the irreconcilable aims of subjecting each carrier to his own regime and, at the same time, holding all carriers solidarity liable. In domestic carriage in common-law jurisdictions, the liability of each carrier is ordinarily determined by application of the rules governing carriage by two or more carriers.

Mixed-carrier transportation in international commerce under a through bill of lading or similar document has been dealt with in international conventions. A through bill of lading covers carriage of goods by two or more successive carriers or by two or more means of transport. It is issued by the first carrier and constitutes a single title to the goods. Under a purely maritime through bill of lading, successive carriers are equally bound, unless the contrary has been stipulated. Solutions differ, however, when carriage is effected by two or more means of transport. Under the Berne Railroad Conventions for the carriage of goods, carriage by rail and sea may be subject to the rules governing railroad carriage at the option of

the contracting states, unless reservation has been made by them for application of certain rules of maritime law to the portion of sea carriage. Since these conventions may be entirely inapplicable to the portion of sea carriage, interested carriers and international organizations have concluded agreements for a uniform, legal regime of rail and sea carriage. In fact, accords have been concluded among United States and Canadian railway and ocean-shipping companies for application of the rules of the Brussels Convention of 1924 to goods carried under through bills of lading by rail and sea. The rules of the Warsaw Convention for carriage of goods by air apply always to the portion of air carriage and to that portion only, but the International Air Transport Association and the International Union of Railways have concluded agreements for carriage by rail and air under a single document. Only the Geneva Convention of 1956 has undertaken to establish rules applicable to all means of transport under a single document. The convention provides, however, that, if damage has been incurred in a portion of the journey other than road carriage, the carrier shall be subject to his proper law. This convention may conflict with the Berne Conventions and does conflict with the Warsaw Convention to the extent that carriage by air is subjected to the Brussels rather than the Warsaw Convention.

In the Western world, the transport of goods is divided between public and private enterprise. The basis of the legal relationship between a carrier and his customer is the same whether the carrier is a public corporation, a local authority, or a private corporation or individual. The law of carriage of goods governs the rights and duties of the shipper, carrier, and consignee.

National and international regulation

In all legal systems the law of carriage has been influenced by the idea that carriers enjoy a factual monopoly. The services that a customer may demand and the remuneration that a carrier may exact are generally regulated by legislation or administrative regulations. The growth of competition among carriers and means of transport in the Western world has led to a reduction in the scope of municipal legislation in a number of countries, but international conventions and administrative regulations have proliferated. The right to carry on a transport business is still everywhere regulated through elaborate licensing systems and the operations of transport are subject to continuous supervision and control by appropriate agencies. The legal relation between the carrier and his customer is affected by this intervention of the public authorities, and public as well as private laws form the body of the law of carriage.

86 Roads, railways, and inland waterways

Since the 19th century legislation has been enacted in most countries to safeguard the public interest in the movement of goods by road, railway, and inland waterway. In the United States a decisive step toward regulation of transportation was taken with the Act to Regulate Commerce of 1887. This act was made applicable to all common carriers by railroads engaged in interstate or foreign commerce and to common carriers transporting goods in part by railroad and in part by inland water when both were used under a common control, management, or arrangement for a continuous carriage. The act created the Interstate Commerce Commission, which today has wide powers to hear complaints against carriers concerning alleged violations of law, to investigate matters in dispute, to order carriers to cease and desist from unlawful practices, and to determine the amount of damages suffered as a result of violations. The commission also possesses rate-making power.

Since the time the 1887 act was adopted, new forms of transport have arisen, and older ones have been improved. The Interstate Commerce Commission now has jurisdiction over railroads, pipelines, motor carriers, and certain carriers by water. Other federal agencies that have been charged with regulation of transportation are the Civil Aeronautics Board and the Federal Maritime Commission.

In England the Carriers Act of 1830 was the first legislative intervention in the field of carriage of goods. The act originally applied to all common carriers by land, including both road and railway carriage. The Railways Act of 1921, however, made special provisions with regard to the railways, and the Transport Act of 1962 enacted that the Railways Board shall not be regarded as a common carrier. Consequently, carriage by railways is now regulated by the contract between the Railway Board and the shipper or other contracting party, as laid down in the Book of the Rules of British Railways. The Carriers Act has never been applicable to private carriers and to common carriers by sea or by inland waterway. If part of the carriage is by sea or inland water and part by road, the act applies to the land part only.

For many decades the law governing the international carriage of goods by railway has been codified in a number of international conventions. These are frequently referred to as the Berne Conventions. The first international convention concerning the carriage of goods by rail was concluded in Berne in 1890 and came into operation in 1893; after World War I it was replaced by a new convention concluded in 1924, which was again amended by a convention signed in Rome in 1933. This in turn was

replaced after World War II by the Berne Convention of 1952. A new convention was signed in Berne in 1961 and came into operation in 1965. The conventions apply whenever goods have been consigned under a through consignment note for carriage over the territories of at least two of the contracting states and on certain specified lines. They regulate mostly the form and conditions of the contract of carriage; its performance, including delivery and payment of the charges; its modifications; the liability of the carrier for delay, loss, or damage; and the enforcement of the contract by actions. Further, the conventions establish the obligation of the railways to carry goods and the rights and obligations of the various railway authorities of the contracting states. Most contracting states have incorporated into their municipal laws rules similar to those of the conventions for the regulation of the domestic carriage of goods by railway. The Treaty of Rome of March 25, 1957, which created the European Economic Community, contains a number of provisions concerning matters of transport. Members of the Community are specifically bound to develop a common policy in matters of transport. The provisions of the treaty have been largely implemented by a number of international agreements. Since all members of the Common Market are members of the Berne Conventions, the mandate for uniformity of rules governing carriage of goods has been largely achieved as to carriage by railway.

Sea carriage

Until the emergence of modern national states, the law governing maritime commerce had been largely uniform in the Western world. In the 18th and 19th centuries, however, legislative enactments and judicial decisions in pursuit of narrowly conceived national interests gradually displaced in various countries the venerable and uniform law of the sea and gave rise to sharp conflicts of laws. The movement of goods from country to country was thus hampered at a time when advancing technology and the spreading Industrial Revolution were about to lead to an expansion of maritime commerce on a world scale. Beginning with the last decades of the 19th century, it has become increasingly apparent that these conflicts of laws might be overcome by means of international conventions. The law of merchant shipping was quite naturally one of the first branches of private law to attract attention for possible international regulation.

The movement for uniformity culminated in the signing in 1924 of the International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law Relating to Bills of Lading. The convention was merely intended to unify certain rules of law relating to bills of lading and only with regard to

damages occurring to hull cargo other than live animals. All bills of lading covered by the convention are subject to certain standard clauses defining the risks assumed by the carrier, which are absolute and cannot be altered by contrary agreement, and the immunities the carrier can enjoy, unless the parties agree otherwise. In general, clauses relieving the carrier from liability for negligence in loading, handling, stowing, keeping, carrying, and discharging the goods or that diminish his obligation to furnish a seaworthy vessel are declared null and void. The carrier, however, is relieved from liability for negligence in navigation or in the management of the vessel and from the absolute warranty of seaworthiness. The convention was originally intended to apply to all bills of lading issued in any one of the contracting states.

Most maritime nations have ratified or adhered to the convention, and others, such as Greece and Indonesia, have enacted domestic legislation incorporating the rules agreed upon in Brussels. Some adhering nations, including Germany, Belgium, Turkey, and The Netherlands, have incorporated the rules of the convention into their commercial codes. Others, including the United States, Japan, Great Britain, and most members of the British Commonwealth, have enacted the rules in the form of special statutes known as Carriage of Goods by Sea Acts. Still others, including France, Italy, Egypt, and Switzerland, have given the convention itself the force of law and, in addition, have enacted domestic legislation modelled on the convention. The substantive standards governing bills of lading in maritime carriage have become largely uniform in most of the Western world.

Other international agreements

The international movement of goods may be regulated in certain countries by international agreements other than the Berne Conventions, the Brussels Convention on Limitation of Liability (1923), or the Warsaw Convention of 1929. During the Cold War, the countries of eastern Europe established a uniform regime for the movement of goods by railway that was comparable to that of the Berne Conventions.

Other agreements in the field include the Geneva Convention of 1956 for the carriage of goods by road. The convention became operative in 1961, and its original membership included France, Austria, Italy, The Netherlands, and Yugoslavia. It applies to international carriage of goods by road for reward with the exception of certain items, such as mail. Carriage is international if it involves two countries, one of which is a member of the convention. An original feature of the Geneva Convention is that it covers

mixed-carrier transportation. It applies for the whole journey, even if the road vehicle has been carried, without being unloaded, by another means of transport, unless there is proof that the damage occurred in a portion of the journey other than that of carriage by road.

A.N. Yiannopoulos

ЧАСТЬ
8
ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ

ENGLUSH -RUSSIAN COMMENTARIES

A,
a

Accept
акцепт. Безусловное принятие предложения другой стороной, влекущее за собой правовые последствия, т.е. согласие заключить договор на предложенных условиях

Agency
агентирование. Выполнение агентом определенных функций по обслуживанию судна по поручению принципала. Перечень функций определяется категорией агента линейный, форвар-динг и т.д. При агентировании судов в портах основные функции агента могут быть представлены следующими укрупненными группами:

- помощь при заходе судна в порт и выходе из порта, в том числе получение информации и передача ее соответствующим лицам; заказ лоцманов, буксиров; помощь в оформлении требующихся формальностей;

- помощь в грузообработке заказ стивидоров и тальманов, контроль за их работой, оформление документов но приему-сдаче груза;

- помощь в организации материально-технического снабжения, включая получение топлива, воды, продуктов;

- выполнение услуг коммерческого характера урегулирование претензий, оформление морского протеста, вызов сюрвейера, оплата и оформление дисбурсментских расходов.

Статья чартера (по проформе " Дженкон" ). "Во всех случаях судовладельцы назначают своего брокера или агента как в порту погрузки, так и в порту выгрузки".

В
,Ь

Bill of Lading-
коносамент. С правовой точки зрения коносамент песет следующие функции: является документом, подтверждающим факт приема груза к перевозке (распиской перевозчика) и товарораспорядительным документом, олицетворяющим собой груз и дающим право владельцу коносамента распоряжаться этим грузом, т.е. в процессе перевозки продавать его, закладывать и т.д. Линейный коносамент, кроме того, имеет третью функцию является документом, подтверждающим факт наличия и содержания договора перевозки.

Коносамент составляется обычно в нескольких экземплярах; о числе выданных коносаментов делается отметка на каждом из них. При выдаче груза по одному из экземпляров остальные теряют силу.

Как правило, все формы коносамента имеют на оборотной стороне отпечатанные типографским способом стандартные условия перевозки, содержание которых у линейных и трамповых коносаментов имеет определенные отличия. Коносаменты классифицируются по:

форме организации судоходства линейные (Liner B/L) и трамповые (Tramp B/L);

категории получателей именные, ордерные и на предъявителя (BL to a named person; BL to order; B/L to a bearer);

ценности - оригиналы, копии и копии, не имеющие торгового значения (Original, Copy, Copy not (non) negotiable);

виду организации работы прямые, сквозные, комбинированные (Direct, Through, Combined Transport);

полноте данных, приведенных на оборотной стороне - полные и укороченные (Short form);

времени выдачи бортовые, т.е. на груз, погруженный на судно, и на грузы принятые к перевозке (Shipped B/L, Received for shipment B/L);

партионности выдачи груза на всю коносаментную партию и долевые (Delivery B/L) на часть груза;

качеству погруженного груза без замечаний (Clean) и с замечаниями (Unclean, Foul, Dirty).

Bill
of
Lading (
short
proform)
— укороченная проформа коносамента. Применяется, когда договор перевозки оформляется чартером . Она содержит ограниченное число статей на оборотной стороне коносамента и ссылку на обязательность ее использования с чартером. Кодовые названия таких коносаментов корреспондируются с кодовыми названиями чартеров. Например, коносамент, используемый с чартер-партией "Gencon" имеет кодовое название "Congenbill".

На оборотной стороне обычно приводится содержание типовых оговорок: "Парамаунт", "Общая авария", "Новая оговорка Джейсона" и "Оговорка о смешанной ответственности при столкновении."

Bill of Lading to a bearer
- коносамент на предьявителя. При наличии в статье "Грузополучатель" термина "to a bearer" груз выдается любому лицу, первым предъявившему коносамент. В практике встречается редко.

Bill
of
Lading
to
a
named
person
- именной коносамент. В статье "Грузополучатель" указывается конкретное юридическое или физическое лицо, которому надлежит выдать груз. При наличии в таком

коносаменте именной передаточной надписи груз может быть выдан другому лицу.

Bill of Lading to
order - ордерный коносамент. Груз по нему выдается отправителю или получателю. либо(на основании передаточной надписи), другому лицу, предъявившему этот коносамент. Передаточных надписей может быть несколько; груз выдаегся лицу, указанному последним в ряду передаточных надписей.

Bill(s) of Lading
- коносамент. Документ, выдаваемый судовладельцем или его агентом в подтверждение приема груза к перевозке на оговоренных условиях, содержащий обязательство выдать груз в порту назначения держателю коносамента. Является документом, подтверждающим факт приема груза к перевозке и товарораспорядительным документом (см. "Document oftitle).

Статья чартера (по проформе "Блэксивуд"). "Фрахтователи представляют коносаменты и другие документы капитану в течении разумного периода времени, который не должен превышать 6 текущих часов с момента завершения погрузки. Коносаменты подписываются согласно форме коносамента "Блоксивудбил". Судовладельцы (перевозчик) несут ответственность за число мест, удостоверенное подписью капитана или его агентов, должным образом на то уполномоченных, однако, перевозчик не отвечает за утрату или уничтожение груза, имевшее место во время нахождения груза у борта судна, в лихтерах или на причале в ожидании погрузки, даже если капитан или агенты судовладельцев дали расписку в приеме груза. В случае любой такой утраты или уничтожения груза капитан должен представить соответствующие тому доказательства Капитан должен представить более одного комплекта коносаментов. Далее груз должен подаваться к борту судна таким образом чтобы капитан имел возможность размещать груз поконосаментно."

BIMKO (
Baltic
and
International
Maritime
council)
- БИМКО (Балтийский и Международный морской Совет). Ранее (до 1985 г.) назывался Балтийской и международной морской конференцией. В Совет входят национальные организации судовладельцев, ФОНАСБА. Британская палата судоходства и ряд других организаций. Совет занимается разработкой и согласованием типовых проформ чартеров, коносаментов и других документов

Broker
брокер (посредник). В торговом мореплавании

основными видами брокерской деятельности являются фрахтование на

открытом фрахтовом рынке, а также купля и продажа судов. Фрахтовые брокеры выступают в качестве посредников между судовладельцами и фрахтователями при заключении договора фрахтования.

Brokerage
брокерская комиссия. Вознаграждение,

выплачиваемое судовладельцем брокеру за подыскание груза, посредничество в переговорах о заключении фрахтовой сделки, содействие в ее исполнении и урегулировании возникших разногласий.

Право брокера на получение брокерской комиссии и ее размер обычно оговариваются в чартерах, большинство форм которых содержит соответствующую статью. Размер брокерской комиссии определяется в процентах от суммы фрахта и мертвого фрахта.

Статья чартера (по проформе "Ньювой")."Брокерская комиссия с суммы фрахта и мертвого фрахта причитается с судовладельцев в пользу брокеров после отгрузки груза. В случае невыполнения чартера не менее 1/3 брокерской комиссии от предполагаемой суммы фрахта и мертвого фрахта выплачивается судовладельцами брокеру в качестве компенсации расходов и работы последних. В случае, если чартером предусмотрено выполнение нескольких рейсов, размер компенсации устанавливается соглашением сторон".

CFR
(cost and freight) КАФ (цена и фрахт). Базисное условие поставки договора купли-продажи. Обязанности продавца поставить товар, заключить договор перевозки, погрузить товар на судно, оплатить расходы по погрузке и известить покупателя о погрузке , оплатить фрахт, нести риски по товару до пересечения им поручней судна, оформить и передать покупателю чистый коносамент, и, если оформлена, чартер-партию, оплатить все сборы, пошлины, оформление формальностей, которые взимаются с груза до погрузки ею на судно.

Обязанности покупателя уплатить цену товара, включающую его стоимость и фрахт, получить товар в порту назначения, оплатить его выгрузку (если она не включена в провозную плату), нести риски по товару с момента перехода им поручней в порту погрузки. [CFR, CIF в базисных условиях, объединенных в группу "С", продавец обязан заключить договор перевозки, но при этом он освобождается от риска потерь и повреждений товара, а также дополнительных расходов, связанных с событиями, возникшими после отгрузки или отправки товара.]

С,с

CIF
(cost, insurance, freight) - СИФ (цена, страхование, фрахт). Базисные условия поставки товара. Дополнительно к условиям CAF, продавец обязан застраховать товар, а покупатель возместить ему эти затраты в цене товара. Как правило, расходы по выгрузке товара несет покупатель, однако, если по соглашению сторон эти расходы относятся на счет продавца, в договоре купли-продажи следует сделать запись "CIF landed", т.е. "СИФ, включая разгрузку".

Claim
- претензия. Требование о возмещении ущерба вследствие невыполнения или ненадлежащего исполнения сторонами договорных обязательств.

Статья чартера (по проформе "Ньювой"). "Любые претензии судовладельцев к фрахтователям и/или грузоотправителям, возникающие в порту погрузки, должны быть заявлены капитаном в письменной форме грузоотправителям до подписания коносаментов, причем оговорка общего характера в качестве описания претензии является достаточной"

Clause
- оговорка. Условие в торговых и фрахтовых сделках, в соответствии с которым регулируются взаимоотношения сторон при наступлении какого-либо обусловленного обстоятельства, либо в случае изменения в будущем обстоятельств, существовавших в момент заключения сделки. В разделе приведено толкование следующих оговорок чартера арбитражная (Arbitration clause (с), бункерная (Bunker с), военная (War с), о канцели-ровании (Cancelling с), о забастовке (Strike с), ледовая (Ice с), "Парамаунт" ("Paramount"), о смешанной ответственности при столкновениях (Both to blame collision с), новая оговорка Джейсона (new (amended) Jason с.) и ряд других. Часть чартерных оговорок приведена в других разделах

Contract
of
carriage
-договор морской перевозки. Соглашение, в соответствии с которым судовладелец (перевозчик) по договоренности с фрахтователем (грузовладельцем) обязуется за определенную плату (фрахт) доставить согласованное количество груза в пункт назначения и выдать его грузополучателю. Фрахтователь обязан в пункте отправления своевременно к приходу судна подготовить груз и сдать его перевозчику, а в пункте назначения принять груз, а также уплатить фрахт. Договор перевозки может быть заключен в виде чартера (Charter party), линейного коносамента (Liner Bill of Lading), букинг-нот (Booking-note) или бёрс-нот (Berth note)

Contract of marine insurance
- договор морского страхования. Договор, по которому одна сторона (страховщик) за установленное вознаграждение принимает на себя риск убытков в имуществе другой стороны от определенных причин.

Contract of purchase (or of sale)
- договор купли-продажи. Двухсторонняя сделка, регулирующая взаимоотношения участников. По договору купли-продажи одна сторона (продавец) обязуется передать другой стороне (покупателю) указанный товар; покупатель при этом принимает на себя обязательство уплатить продавцу обусловленную договором цену.

D,d

Demurrage
- демередж. Денежное возмещение (штраф), уплачиваемое судовладельцу за непроизводительный простой судна сверх сталийного времени, предусмотренного в договоре фрахтования (перевозки).

Обычно в чартерах ставка демереджа предусматривается либо в виде определенной суммы, подлежащей уплате за каждый день простоя судна (или пропорционально за часть дня), либо на регистровую тонну вместимости судна (или другую характеристику судна) в день.

Статья чартера (по проформе " Дженкон"). "Десять текущих суток на демередже по ставке, согласованной в боксе 18, за один день или пропорционально за часть дня, с ежедневной выплатой предоставлено фрахтователям, в целом по портам погрузки и выгрузки"

Detention
- детеншн. Сверхконтрсталийное время. Время задержки судна фрахтователем сверх обусловленного в чартере контрсталийного времени. В некоторых чартерах право фрахтователя держать судно на простое с оплатой демереджа ограничивается сроком в 5-10 суток, после чего оно переходит на сверхконтрсталию. При наступлении сверхконтрсталии, кроме возмещения фактических эксплуатационных затрат на содержание судна на стоянке, судовладелец вправе требовать от фрахтователя оплаты всех связанных с этим убытков, включая упущенную выгоду и потери, вызванные невыполнением судовладельцем своих обязательств перед другими фрахтователями. Иногда в чартерах оговаривается конкретный размер повышенного штрафа за сверхконтреталию.

Второе значение детеншн - это выплачиваемое фрахтователем судовладельцу возмещение фактически доказанных убытков за простой судна сверх контрсталийного времени, если последнее

ограничивается договором перевозки. Стороны могут согласовать вместо ограничения срока демереджа и выхода судна на detention прогрессивную ставку демереджа, например, первые 10 дней 2000$ за 24 часа или пропорционально за часть суток, следующие 10 дней -3000$ и т. д.

Deviation
- девиация. Право судна в случае необходимости отклоняться от пути следования. В случае, если отклонение вызвано только надобностью судна, а не рейса, оно будет признано незаконным. Например, заход в порт для бункеровки не из-за отсутствия топлива, а лишь из-за его низкой стоимости в данном порту (если это не оговорено специально).

Статья чартера (по проформе "Дженкон"). "Судно имеет право захода в любой порт или порты в любой последовательности для любой цели, следован» без лоцманов, буксировать и/или оказывать помощь судам при любых обстоятельствах, а также отклоняться от пути следования в целях спасения жизни и/или имущества"

Document
of
title
- товарораспорядительный документ. Это документ, олицетворяющий собой груз (товар), дающий право владельцу (держателю) документа свободно распоряжагься указанным в нем товаром. Владелец документа может совершать сделки купли, продажи, залога товара путем передачи документа без физического перехода товара от одного лица к другому. Товарораспорядительной функцией обладает коносамент

Е,е

Encashment
- инкассо. Одна из форм расчетов по дисбурсментским счетам. Соглашение по которому обслуживающий агента банк обязуется получить по поручению клиента (агента) платеж но дисбурсментскому счету от плательщика (судовладельца) против выдачи ему соответствующих документов (дисбурсментского счета).

Endorsement
- индоссамент. Передаточная надпись на денежном (чек, вексель и др.). товарораспорядительном (коносамент, складское свидетельство), страховом (полис, сертификат) документе, согласно которой право владения или получения материальных ценностей или иные права передается другому лицу.

Endorsement,
assignment
индоссамент. Передача страхового полиса лицу, к которому перешли нрава на застрахованное имущество. Различают именные индоссаменты (когда указывается имя

лица, которому передается полис) и бланковые индоссаменты ( состоящие из одной подписи лица, передающего полис). В последнем случае полис в дальнейшем может передаваться посредством простого вручения.

Endorser
— индоссант. Лицо, учиняющее передаточную надпись.

F,
f

FOB (
free
of
board)
-ФОБ (свободно на борту). В отличие от FAS, обязанности продавца заканчиваются после погрузки груза на борт судна. Обязанности продавца: в отличие от 1 AS, продавец должен погрузить груз на борт судна; оформить и передать покупателю чистый коносамент, нести риск потерь и повреждений товара до его погрузки на борг судна. Обязанности покупателя: в отличие от FAS, покупатель несет риск потерь и повреждений товара с момента его погрузки на борг судна; критическая точка поручни судна ("ship's rail"). Кроме того, грузовые операции производятся не покупателем, а продавцом. Следует отметить, что стоимость погрузки может быть распределена между сторонами. Если продавец берег на себя всю стоимость погрузки, к термину "FOB" добавляется "stowed" или "trimmed". Более того, чтобы при этом не происходило перемещения "критической точки" по моменту разграничения ответственности, запись следует делать следующим образом:" FOB, stowed costs for seller's account"- "ФОБ, стоимость укладки за счет продавца"

|FAS, FOB во всех базисных условиях, объединенных в группу "F", (включая FAS и FOB) обязанности продавца заканчиваются после доставки товара до транспортного средства, указанного покупателем (в ряде случаев включая погрузку)].

FONASBA
(Federation of national associations of ship brokers and agents) ФОНАСБА (Федерация национальных ассоциаций судовых брокеров и агентов) создана в 1969 году. Основные задачи защита интересов своих членов, унификация судовых документов, организация конференций, совещаний и т.п. В ее составе имеются пять постоянных комитетов в том числе трамповый, фрахтово-документальный и линейный.

Force
majeure
- форс мажор (непреодолимая сила). Чрезвычайное и непредотвратимое при данных условиях событие. Обычно стороны в договоре не несут ответственности за его неисполнение, а также за потери и убытки, явившиеся следствием действия форс-мажорных обстоятельств.

Freight
- плата за перевозку грузов морем (рекой), взимаемая судовладельцем. В зависимости от договора перевозки фрахт может оплачиваться на разных стадиях процесса перевозки ( при отправлении; после доставки груза; частично при отправлении, остальное в порту назначения). Как правило, фрахт определяется путем умножения фрахтовой (тарифной) ставки, установленной на единицу груза (т, м3 и т.д.) на число перевозимых единиц груза.

General
average
- общая авария. Убытки или расходы, понесенные в результате разумно предпринятых, намеренных, чрезвычайных мер в целях спасения общего морского предприятия (судна, груза и фрахта) от общей для них опасности.

Убытки, относимые на общую аварию распределяются между судном, грузом и фрахтом соразмерно их стоимости. При общей аварии трата денег, для обеспечения спасения общих интересов сторон, приравнивается к пожертвованию имущества для этих же целей.

В соответствии с Йорк-Антверпенскими правилами 1974 года наличие общей аварии признается, если пожертвование имущества или расходы были экстраординарны (чрезвычайны); действия разумны и преднамеренны; существовала реальная общая угроза; действия были предприняты в целях общей безопасности.

Примеры общей аварии: выбрасывание груза за борт при штормовой погоде; сжигание груза в качестве топлива при нехватке последнего и невозможности получить его в нужный момент; повреждение судна или груза во время тушения пожара; расходы по заходу в порт-убежище; намеренная посадка судна на мель во избежание гибели судна вместе с грузом; возвращение в порт вследствие какого-либо чрезвычайного обстоятельства ради общей безопасности. Понятие "общая авария" является юридическим определением, а не аварией в смысле морского происшествия. При общей аварии в целях спасения "общего", т.е. судна, груза и фрахта, приносится в жертву часть имущества или производятся расходы для предотвращения опасности. Расчет распределения убытков по общей аварии между грузом, судном и фрахтом называется диспашей (average statement).

Статья чартера (по проформе "Дженкон"). "Общая авария регулируется в соответствии с Йорк-Антверпенскими правилами 1974 г. Владельцы груза выплачивают свою долю в общих расходах, даже

если они были вызваны небрежностью судовладельцев или их служащих".

General
average
общая авария. Убытки, понесенные вследствие произведенных намеренно и разумно чрезвычайных расходов или пожертвований в целях спасения судна, груза и фрахта от общей для них опасности.

General
average
statement
диспаша. Составляемый

диспашером расчет аварийных убытков и их распределение между сторонами, участвующими в общей аварии. При составлении диспаши страхователь должен охранять интересы страховщика, страховщик обязан компенсировать страхователю расходы по составлению диспаши сверх страхового возмещения.

I,i

Insured, assured
- страхователь. Лицо, заключающее со страхователем договор страхования. Страхователь может заключить договор в свою пользу, либо в пользу другого лица, указанного или не указанного в договоре.

Insured Bill of Lading
коносамент застрахованный.

Специальная разновидность коносамента, иногда применяется при оформлении перевозок грузов в контейнерах. Представляет собой своеобразное сочетание коносамента и страхового полиса и поэтому не только служит доказательством приема груза к перевозке, но одновременно удостоверяет и его страхование.

Insured
value
- страховая стоимость. Действительная стоимость застрахованного имущества.

Insurer,
underwriter
- страховщик. Лицо, принимающее на себя за вознаграждение риск убытков в имуществе страхователя пли другого лица в пользу которого заключен договор морского страхования.

L,l

Letter of credit
- аккредитив. Одна из форм расчетов по дисбурсментским счетам. Соглашение, по которому банк плательщик в соответствии с указанием клиента (судовладельца) дает приказ иностранному банку произвести платежи третьему лицу (агенту) против предъявленных документов (дисбурсментского счета) на основе оговоренных условий.

М,
m

Mate'
s
receipt
- штурманская расписка. Документ, выдаваемый администрацией судна, подтверждающий факт принятия на судно определенной партии груза и переход ответственности за него к перевозчику. Штурманская расписка может быть представлена самостоятельным документом или выглядеть как поручение на отгрузку, подписанное грузовым помощником. Выписывается она на основании тальманских расписок. Штурманская расписка не является товарораспорядительным документом на погруженный товар. Ее передача не дает права собственности на товар и владение ею неравноценно владению товаром. Это лишь подтверждение количества и состояния принятого груза, однако, па основании этой расписки, грузоотправитель имеет право потребовать от судна выдачи коносамента.

N, n

Negotiable documents
- оборотный документ. Может быть переуступленным, купленным, проданным, т.е. является товарораспорядительным документом, олицетворяющим товар. Таким документом является коносамент. Документ с надписью "Negotiable сору" не может служить предметом сделки.

Port
agent
- портовый агент. Основными обязанностями портового агента являются: помощь судну при заходе в порт или выходе из порта, в том числе обеспечение его лоцманами и буксирами; помощь капитану при выполнении таможенных, санитарных и других формальностей; организация, контроль и оформление грузообработки судна; обеспечение материально-технического снабжения судна, в том числе топливом, продовольствием, водой; оплата и оформление дисбурсментских расходов; документальное оформление приема-сдачи груза; помощь в заявлении морского протеста, урегулирование претензий и так далее.

Port
charges
- портовые услуги (группа дисбурсментских расходов). Плата за портовые услуги представляет собой цену за выполнение определенной, конкретном работы. В отличие от сборов, взимаемых с судна за каждый судо-заход без предварительного уведомления, оплата портовых услуг производится после их предварительного заказа и выполнения. Основными видами вспомогательных операций, связанных с заходом, выходом и

100

101

перемещением судна в порту, за которые производится оплата услуг, являются лоцманская проводка (pilotage), буксирная помощь (towage), швартовные операции (boatmen, mooring, unmooring), агентские услуги (agency), грузовые работы (cargo handling). Все услуги подтверждаются оправдательными документами ваучерами,

подписываемыми капитаном судна.

Port
dues-
портовые сборы (группа дисбурсментских расходов). Предназначены для покрытия расходов по содержанию порта, ею сооружений, акватории, подходных каналов, навигационной обстановки. Взимаются при заходе судна в порт и выходе из порта. Оплачиваются до отхода судна из порта. Основными портовыми сборами являются тоннажный (tonnage), маячный (light), причальный (berth), якорный (anchorage), канальный (саnnel) и ледовый (ice).

Ставки сборов, как правило, устанавливаются на какую-либо техническую характеристику судна (регистровую тонну, тонну дедвейта, погонный метр и т.д.) или комбинацию данных (например, на техническую характеристику за единицу времени). На уровень ставок сборов и систему их взимания оказывают влияние следующие факторы: назначение судна, цель захода, частота посещения, вид плавания, национальная принадлежность, технические характеристики и ряд других причин в том числе наличие межправительственных соглашений по предоставлению соответствующих режимов.

S,
s

Shipowner
- судовладелец. Лицо, эксплуатирующее судно от своего имени, независимо от того, является ли он собственником судна или эксплуатирует его на ином законном основании (например, фрахтователь, заключивший договор на срок с собственником судна).

Shipping
documents
- грузовые (погрузочные) документы. При
приеме груза оформляются следующие документы: погрузочный ордер (поручение на отгрузку экспортных roBapoB)-shipping order; грузовой список-cargo list; документы, фиксирующие количество принятого груза tally sheet или act of loading; штурманская расписка-mate's receipt; коносамент-Bill of Lading; манифест-manifest; грузовой план-cagro plan и люковая расписка-hatch list.

Анализ реквизитов перечисленных документов показывает, что основную их часть составляют следующие статьи: грузоотправитель (shipper), грузополучатель (consignee), адресат ;для извещения (notify address), судовладелец (shipowner), наименование судна (vessel), его

национальная принадлежность (flag), порт погрузки (port of loading), порт выгрузки (port of discharging), марки и номера (marks and numbers), род упаковки и описание груза (kind of packages and description of goods), число мест (number or pieces), вес брутто (gross weight), фрахт и расходы (freight and charges).

Shipping
order
- погрузочный ордер (поручение на отгрузку экспортных товаров). Первичный документ, содержащий все данные по грузу и служащий основанием для его погрузки на судно. При погрузке на палубу погрузочный ордер должен содержать оговорку на согласие на это грузоотправителя. Судну вручается 2 экземпляра погрузочного ордера, на одном из которых после погрузки (в отечественных портах) расписывается представитель судовой администрации. Этот экземпляр превращается в штурманскую расписку и служит основанием для выписки коносамента.

Т,
t

Tariff
тариф. Система провозных плат и дополнительных сборов и правила их применения. В международном торговом мореплавании сферой применения тарифов является линейное судоходство. В трамповом судоходстве цена морской перевозки выступает в виде фрахтовых ставок. Основные различия между фрахтовыми и тарифными ставками заключаются в порядке определения их уровня, системы объявления и периода действия. Уровень фрахтовых ставок определяется соглашением сторон; их значения объявляются через определенный период после совершения фрахтовой сделки; действует фрахтовая ставка только на время конкретной перевозки. Уровень тарифной ставки определяется судовладельцем; он объявляется для всеобщего сведения с момента введения; период действия тарифных ставок относительно велик и может составить несколько месяцев.

Terms
of delivery
условия поставки (базисные), приводимые в "Инкотермс". Они определяют обязанности продавца и покупателя по перевозке товара, его передаче, переходе риска случайной гибели или повреждения товара с продавца на покупателя, страхованию. "Incoterms" содержит большой набор вариантов базисных условий с разнообразным распределением обязанностей между продавцом и покупателем. На водном транспорте, как правило, используются условия фас. фоб. каф и сиф. краткое содержание которых приведено ниже.

102

103

V,
v

Valued
policy
- полис таксированный. Полис с объявленной стоимостью страхуемого имущества, в котором оценка застрахованного имущества заранее окончательно согласована между страховщиком и страхователем.

W, w

"Warehouse to warehouse"
- "от склада до склада". Условия страхования грузов, в соответствии с которыми они считаются застрахованными на весь период транспортировки от склада отправителя до склада получателя, включая перегрузки, перевалки и промежуточное хранение в пути следования.

104

ENGLISH - RUSSIAN DICTIONARY

А
, а

abandon
v: отказываться

acceptor
акцептант

accessorial
adj: вспомогательный, дополнительный

accommodate
удовлетворять

account
счет

acknowledge
v: подтверждать

adjuster
I. диспашер (эксперт, производящий диспашу -

расчет убытков при аварии и распределение их между сторонами) 2.

оценщик

advertisement
n: реклама

agent
n: агент, представитель, посредник, доверенное лицо

agility
n: быстрота, ловкость

aid
вспомогательные средства

aisle
n: проход между полками

aloft
adv: наверху, на высоте

approach
n: подход

arrange
v: устраивать, организовывать

array
n: ряд

ascertain
v: устанавливать, выяснять

assemble
v: собирать

assent
v: соглашаться, изъявлять согласие

assessor оценщик страховых убытков

attach
v: присоединять, прикреплять

authorization
n: уполномочивание; санкция,

разрешение

average [abv3rid3]n: убыток от аварии судна free from particular
~

свободно от частной аварии; general ~
общая авария; particular—

частная авария; with
particular
~ с ответственностью за частную

аварию

avoid
v: избегать

await
:ожидать

axis ось (pl axes)

B,
b

back
задняя, оборотная сторона

barrel
: бочка, цилиндр, барабан

basis
основание, базис

batten
половая доска, дранка, деревянная или металлическая

рейка

bay
n: пролет, проход

bearer
предъявитель чека, податель

beam
n: I.
бимс; 2. ширина (судна)

behalf
n : on or

(US) in
~ of

от имени кого-либо

belt
n: лен та конвейера

bend
v: гнуть

benefit
n: прибыль, выгода; ■ v: приносить пользу

berth
n: причал

blade
n: лезвие

body
n: корпус судна

bonding
n: хранение товаров на таможне до уплаты

пошлины

boom
n: грузовая стрела; jib

~ стрела; укасина (крана); jumbo

~

тяжеловесная стрела

bow
n: нос судна

boxcar
n: амер. товарный вагон

bracing
n: крепление

brand
n (also: name) фирменная марка

break-
in
n: издержки освоения (продукции нового типа)

break
bulk
I. начать разгрузку 2. разбивать крупную

партию на мелкие

break
down
v: разбивать, делить

bulkhead
n: переборка

bulky
adj: большой, объемистый, громоздкий

bulwark
n: фальшборт

bundle
связывать в узел

buoy
n: I. буй; 2. швартовная бочка

buyer
покупатель

С, с

cantilever
n консоль, кронштейн, стрела, укосина; ~ crane

консольный кран

capability
n: способность, потенциальная возможность

capacity
n: пропускная способность

cargo
n: груз

carriage
перевозка

carrier
: транспортное агентство, перевозчик

cart
n: карт, тачка, тележка

cashier
n: кассир; cashier'
s
check
чек кассира (подписанный

кассиром банка), банковский чек

caster
= castor n: ролик, колесико

challenge
n: сложная задача, проблема

charge
n: плата, сбор

chassis
n: (pl shasis ) каркас, блок

civil
adj: гражданский

claim
n: требование, претензия

clamp
n: зажим

clause
n: пункт, условие контракта

clearing
n: клиринг, безналичные расчеты; ~ house

расчетная

палата (банковская)

clerical
adj: канцелярский, конторский

code
v: кодировать, шифровать; • n код, кодекс; bar

~

штриховой код

coil
свертывать кольцом, спиралью

cold-
store
n: холодильник портовой

collision
столкновение

collateral
n: залог

commitment
n: обязательство

commodity
n: товар

commotion
смятение, потрясение

compete
v: конкурировать

compiling
n: сбор (напр.статистических данных

computation
n: 1.вычисление, счет, подсчет 2.смета

compute
v: считать, подсчитывать

concern
важность, значение, интерес

confuse
v: путать

conserve
v: рационально использовать

consider
v: рассматривать, учитывать

consignee
n: фузополучатель

consignment
n: 1. груз, партия товаров 2. отправка

(поставка, посылка грузов)

consignor
грузоотправитель

consolidate
v: объединять, укрупнять

consumer
n: потребитель, покупатель, клиент

contend
v: бороться

106

107

contingency
n: случайность, непредвиденное

обстоятельство

convert
v: конвертировать, перестраивать, реконструировать

conveyance
перевозка, транспортировка

conveyor(
er)
n: конвейер; belt

~
ленточный конвейер;

dragline ~
скребковый конвейер; gravity-
feed ~
гравитационный

конвейер; power -
feed
~ приводной конвейер; roller

~ роликовый

конвейер; screw ~
винтовой конвейер; slat

~ пластинчатый конвейер;

wheel

~
барабанчатый конвейер

cooper
v: бондарить

cost
n: pi расходы, издержки, затраты; ~ savings
снижение

издержек, экономия на издержках

cost
n: цена, стоимость

couple
соединять

cover
[ 'kAvaJv: покрывать, обеспечивать • п:
покрытие (денежное,

страховое)

crane
[kremj n: кран, кран-балка; bridge -
мостовой кран; deck
~

палубный кран; derrick
~ деррик -кран, тренога (подъемное

устройство); electro-

hydraulic

~-
электро-гидравлический кран; gantry

~
портальный козловой кран; portal

~
n портальный кран; rotary ~

поворотный кран; ship (

shipboard)

~ судовой кран; stationary
~

стационарный кран;

travelling

(
movable) ~
п перемещающийся кран;

credit
v: кредитовать

crew
n: судовая команда, экипаж

custodian
n: хранитель, опекун

custody
n: хранение

customer
n: покупатель, клиент

casualty
n: авария, несчастный случай

D
,
d

Debit
v: дебетовать, относить на дебит счета

debt
n: долг

decode
v: декодировать, дешифровать

decrease
v: уменьшать, сокращать

delay
v : задерживать; ■ n: задержка, замедление

deliberate
adj: умышленный, преднамеренный

deliver
v: доставлять, поставлять; -у
п поставка

demage
v: повреждать

demurrage
n: I. простой, контрсталия 2. плата за простой,

демередж; плата за хранение грузов сверх срока

deplete
v: истощать, исчерпывать

deposit
n: хранилище

depositor
n: вкладчик, депозитор

depth
n: глубина, высота

derailment
n: сход с рельсов, крушение

derrick
n: грузовая (подъемная) стрела

designate
v: предназначать

destined
adj: to be -for
предназначаться

detention
n: I. простой судна 2. вынужденная задержка,

оставление сверх срока 3. арест, задержание

deterioration
| n: ухудшение, порча, износ,

изнашивание

device
n: устройство, приспособление, механизм

dimensions
(pl.) n: величина, гобориты

disbursement
n: pl расходы, издержки

dispatch
n: I. отправка 2. диспач (премия за досрочную

обработку судна, выплачиваемая судовладельцем фрахтователю за

съэкономленное время )

disruptive
adj разрушительный; ~ lag
разрушительное

отставание

distant
adj: отдаленный

disturbance
n: беспорядок, волнение

distribution
n: распределение

dock
n: I. док, судоремонтный завод, портовый бассейн,

пристань 2. погрузочная платформа; ~ receipt

n доковая расписка (в

принятии груза для отправки)

diversion
изменение маршрута

document
n: документ, свидетельство; ~ of

title

n

говарораспорядигельныи документ

downgrade
n: уклон

downward
adj: спускающийся, понижающийся

draft
n: тратта, переводной вексель

dragline
n: драглайн, скребковый экскаватор

drawee
n: трассат (лицо, на которое выставлена тратта)

drawer
n: трассант ( лицо, выставляющее тратту), составитель

документа

drive
n: передача, привод

108

109

drum
n: ящик для фруктов, барабан dunnage
n: подстилка под груз

Е,е

ease
n: покой, легкость

efficiency
n: эффективность, продуктивность, прибыльность

eliminate
v: устранять, исключать

embody
v: заключать в себе, включать

encode
v: шифровать, кодировать

endorse
v: расписываться на обороте документа,

подтверждать

endorsee
n: индоссат (лицо в пользу которого сделана

передаточная надпись)

endorser
n: индоссатор

endorsement
n: индоссамент (передаточная надпись на

обороте документа)

endorser
n: индоссант

ensure
v: обеспечивать, гарантировать

enterprise
n: предприятие, компания

escalating
adj: возрастающий, растущий

estimate
v: оценивать, подсчитывать

eventuality
n: возможность, случайность

expand
v: расширяться

expedite
v: быстро выполнять, ускорять работу

exposure
n: воздействие, экспозиция

F,
f

fare
n: стоимость проезда

fasten
v: прикреплять, скреплять

feasible
adj: осуществимый

feed
v:питать

file
v: представлять, подавать какой-либо документ

flatcar
n: платформа, вагон-платформа

flexibility
n: эластичность, подвижность

floating
adj: плавающий, плавучий

flow
n: поток

footage
n: длина в футах

foreseeable
adj: поддающийся предвидению

free
v: освобождать, высвобождать

freight
n: фрахт, груз

freeze
v: замораживать

fumigation
n: дезинфекция

gain
v: получать, приобретать, добиваться

grab
n: I. захват 2. ковш, грейфер, экскаватор

gravity
n: сила тяжести, тяготение

grouping
n: классификация, распределение по группам

guy
wire
n: растяжка, натяжной трос

H, h

hand
v: передавать

hand-
held
adj: ручной

handling
n: переработка, погрузочно-разгрузочные работы;

materials

~
перемещение грузов, транспортирование материалов;

manual

~
ручная обработка

haul
n: перевозка, транспортировка; • v: перевозить, таскать

hazard
n: риск, опасность

hazardous
adj: опасный

height
n: высота

high
adj: высокий

hoist
n: подъемник

hook
n: крюк

hopper
n: вагон с откидным дном, хоппер

hose
n: рукав, шланг

hydrofoil
n: судно на подводных крыльях

hydraulic
adj: гидравлический

hypersonic
adj: сверхзвуковой (скорость)

I,i

identify
v: определять

idle
adj: неиспользуемый, простаивающий

impact
n: воздействие

implement
v : выполнять, осуществлять

impracticable
adj: невыполнимый, неосуществимый

improve
v: улучшать, совершенствовать

incentive
n: стимул

incline
v: наклонять

incur
v: потерпеть убытки

inherent
adj: присущий, свойственный

110

111

Locomotion
n: передвижение

long-
term
adj: долгосрочный

logistics
n: логистика

loop
n: петля, виток

lumber
n: пиломатериалы

injury
n: имущественный ущерб, повреждение

insurance
n: страхование ~ policy

n страховой полис

insure
v: страховать

insured
n: страхователь (лицо, отдающее на страх имущество )

insurer
n: страховщик (лицо, принимающее имущество на

страх)

intermediary
n: посредник

intermodalism
n: комбинированность (перевозок)

interstate
adj: межгосударственный, межштатный

intrastate
adj: находящийся внутри штата

inventory
n: регулирование запасов

invest
v: инвестировать, вкладывать; ~ ment

n инвестирование,

помещение капитала

issue
n: вопрос, проблема

jet
n: реактивный самолет

jib
n: стрела грузоподъемного крана; — crane

n стреловой кран

К
,
к

keg
n: бочонок (емкостью до 10 галлонов)

labor
n: (US) труд, работа, задание; рабочая сила; v • работать,

выполнять работу

lack
v: испытывать недостаток

lading
n: погрузка, груз, фрахт; bill

of ~
транспортная

накладная, коносамент

lag
n: отставание, запаздывание

layout
n; размещение, планировка

lead
v: приводить к чему-либо

lean
v: наклоняться, опираться

lease
v: арендовать; ~ ing

n лизинг, долгосрочная аренда

legal
adj: законный

lend
v: прибегнуть к чему-либо

letter
n: письмо, послание; ~ of

credit

аккредитив

liable
adj: обязанный, ответственный ; to
be -
for
отвечать за

что-либо

linear
adj: линейный

loan
n: заем, ссуда, кредит

112

М,
m

производить, изготовлять, ing adj промышленный,

manufacture
v:

обрабатывать, перерабатывать;

производственный

manually
v: в ручную, с ручным управлением

mark
v: маркировать, обозначать

mast
n : мачта

mate
n: помощник капитана; mate'

s

receipt

n штурманская

расписка, расписка помощника капитана (о приеме груза)

meet
v: встречать, отвечать, соответствовать;

~ the

requirements

соответствовать требованиям

merchandise
n : товар(ы)

misplace
v: неправильно разместить

mix
n: структура, состав (продукции)

mode
n: вид

mount
v: устанавливать, монтировать; ~ ed

adj

смонтированный, установленный

N
, n

neglect
v: пренебрегать

negligence
n: небрежность, халатность

negotiable
adj: оборотный

negotiate
v: договариваться, устанавливать

near
v: приближаться, подходить

nonnegotiable
adj: не подлежит передачи, без права

передачи

notify
v: извещать, уведомлять

О
,
о

odour
n; запах, аромат, душок, привкус

offering
n: предложение

offset
v: возмещать, компенсировать

option
n; выбор, право выбора

order
n : заказ

113

outbound
adj: отправляемый за границу, экспортный

outlay
n: расходы, затраты, издержки

overhead
adj: верхний

overhaul
v: разбирать, ремонтировать

overload
v: перегружать

owner
n: владелец, собственник

ownership
[aunajip] n: собственность; право собственности; владение

oxidize
v: окислять (ся)

P,
p

Pack
v: упаковывать, пакетировать

pallet
(n) - поддон, паллет, подстилка; palletized (goods) -

грузы на поддонах, пакетированный груз

payee
n: получатель денег, предъявитель чека (векселя)

payload
n: полезная нагрузка

peril
n: опасность, риск

pickup
n: вывоз груза

piggyback
adj: контрейлерный (контрейлер - автоприцеп

или съемный кузов ж/д платформы)

pilferage
n: мелкая кража

pillar
n: пиллерс, стойка; crane
n кран на неподвижной

колонне; jib

crane

n поворотный кран на колонне с постоянным

вылетом стрелы

pledge
v: отдать в залог, закладывать

pole
n: шест, кол

power truck
n: электрокар

preclude
v: 1)предотвращать 2) мешать (from)

preliminary
n: подготовительное мероприятие • adj:

предварительный

premium
n: страховая премия

prepay
v: уплачивать заранее, франкировать

primary
adj: первичный, основной

promotion
n: рекламно-пропагандистская деятельность,

продвижение

property
n: собственность, право собственности

provide
v: обеспечивать, предоставлять

public
adj: общественный, государственный

pull
v: тянуть, тащить

pulley
n: блок, полиспаст

purchasing
n: покупка, закупочная деятельность, материально-техническое снабжение

Q,
q

quantity
n: количество

quay
n: причал, набережная

quote
v: назначать цену, котировать, регистрировать курс

R,r

ram
n : толкач

ramp
n: пандус

random
adj: случайный

rate
n: размер, ставка

ratio
n: соотношение

reach
n: охват, сфера

rear
n: задняя сторона

receipt
n: расписка, квитанция; clean
~ чистая расписка

reconsignment
n: переадресовка (груза)

record
n: запись, регистрация

refinement
n: усовершенствование

reimburse
v: возвращать, возмещать

reinforce
v: усиливать, укреплять

release
v: выпускать, отпускать

reluctant
adj: делающий что-либо с неохотой,

вынужденный

renovate
v: модернизировать

rent
v: арендовать, снимать

rental
n: сумма арендной платы

renting
n: сдача внаем

replenish
v : пополнить; ~ the

stock

пополнить запас; ~
ment

n: пополнение

requirement
n: pl требования

responsible
adj: ответственный

responsibility
n: ответственность

rest
v: покоиться

resume
v: продолжать

retard
v: задерживать, замедлять

retail
v продавать в розницу; • n розничная продажа; • adj

розничный; ~ er
n розничный торговец, предприятие розничной

торговли

retain
v: сохранять, поддерживать

114

115

retrieve
v: находить и подавать

revise
v: изменять, пересматривать, перерабатывать

rig
v: оснащать, вооружать

right
n: право

riot
n: бунт, мятеж

roadbed
n: полотно дороги

roller
n: ролик, роллер ~ conveyor

рольганг

rotate
v: поворачивать, вращать

route
n: курс, маршрут, направление

S
, s

safeguard
v: охранять, гарантировать

sample
v: испытывать, квантовать (по времени)

salvage
n: спасение, спасение имущества

saving
n: экономия, сбережения; часто pl сбережения,

накопления

screw
n: винт

seek
v: искать

select
v: выбирать

serve
v: служить, обслуживать; ~ ice
n служба; перевозка;

услуга; судоходная линия

shape
n: форма

shift
n: смена (рабочая); ■ v двигать, смещать, перемещать

n: I. погрузка (на судно), отгрузка (товаров),

отправка (грузов морским путем); 2. груз, партия

shipowner
n: судовладелец

shipper
n: грузоотправитель

shipping
n: I. погрузка, отгрузка, отправка 2. суда, моркой флот

3. тоннаж 4. судоходство; • adj. судовой, морской; экспедиторский.

отгрузочный; ~ documents

n погрузочные документы, транспортные

документы;

- note

n погрузочный ордер

shrewd
adj: проницательный; ~ consolidation

проницательное

укрепление

sideloader
n: погрузчик с боковым захватом

signer
n: лицо, сторона (подписавшие документ)

signify
v: значить, означать

slat
[n: пластинка

sling
n: строп, канат

slip
v: снижаться

slot
n: щелка, щель

spell
out
v: разъяснять

split
adj: разделенный пополам

spot
v: располагать, размещать

spur
n: ответвление, подъездная ветка

squeeze
v: сжимать, стискивать

stable
adj: стабильный, устойчивый

stack
v: штабелировать; ~ er п:
механический укладчик

stencil
v: наносить надпись по трафарету, маркировать

stiff
adj: жесткий, неэластичный

stock
n: to
be ~
ассортимент (товаров), склад

storage
n: склады, хранение на складах

store
v: хранить; cold

~
холодильник (портовой)

storehause
n: склад

stow
v: укладывать, размещать

stowage
n: укладка, складывание

strike
n: забастовка

subsonic
adj: дозвуковой

superintendent
n: начальник, управляющий

supersonic
adj: сверхзвуковой, ультразвуковой

supplier
n: поставщик, предприятие-поставщик

surge
n: рост

suspend
v: приостанавливать, прекращать, временно

отстранять

swing
колебать

T
,
t

tag
v: бирковать, обозначать

tally
v: подсчитывать; «п: бирка, этикетка, квитанция

tax
n: налог, сбор, пошлина

telescope
v: складывать(ся) (подобно телескопу)

term
срок, период; - and

conditions

на всех условиях

theft
n: воровство, кража

throughput
n: пропускная способность, производительность

thrust
n: движущая сила

tilt
n: наклон, наклонное положение

tine
n: зубец, острие

tipping
n: опрокидывание

tongs
n: pl.щипцы

top
v: покрывать

116

117

tote
v: перевозить, нести ~ box

n стальной поддон (для переноски

товаров)

tow
n: буксировка, буксируемое судно, буксирный караван

trace
v: устанавливать состояние, местонахождение и факт

доставки груза

trade
n: I торговля; 2 перевозка; ■ v торговать

tradeoff
n: компромисс, компромиссное решение

trailer
n: прицеп, трейлер

transaction
n: дело, сделка

transfer
n: перенос, перемещение -v перевозить, перемещать

transferable
adj: допускающий передачу

transoceanic
adj: трансокеанский, пересекающий

океан

trestle
n: эстакада, побмости

trespass
n : правонарушение, проступок, иск на причинение

вреда

trolley
n: тележка, вагонетка

truck
n грузовик, тележка, погрузчик; crane-

автокран; forklift

- вилочный автопогрузчик; hand

~ медведка; industrial

~

автотележка; platform
-~ автопогрузчик;power—

электрокар; straddle

~

лесовоз; tow

~
тягач; ~ crane
n автомобиль кран

U, u

underneath
adv: вниз, внизу, ниже

underutilized
adj: недогруженный, использующийся на низком уровне

unit
n: единица груза; часть, подразделение unitization
n: укрупнение

unrelenting
adj: неуменьшающийся, неослабевающий

upgrade
n: подъем

utilization
n: коэффициент использования, загрузка

V,
v

value
[n: ценность; — able

adj: ценный

vehicle
n: перевозное средство

volume
n: объем

W
,
w

wear
n: носка, носкость, износ wharf
n: пристань

wharfinger
n: владелец товарной пристани, управляющий

пристанью; wharfinger'

s

receipt

n доковая расписка (в принятии груза

для отправки)

warehouse
n: склад, хранилище

weigh
v: взвешивать; ~t n вес

wheel
n: колесо, ролик

wheelbarrow
n: тачка

wholesaler
n: оптовый торговец, оптовик, оптовое

предприятие

wide
adj :широкий

width
n: ширина

wrap
v: обертывать

Y,
y

yard
n: ярд, верфь; портовые мастерские и склады

118

119

6'2" 7.3 m 3 m x 2 m

MEASUREMENTS

Основные единицы измерения, принятые в США

Линейные
меры
Linear Measure

1
inch (in) дюйм ~ 2,54 см

1 foot (ft) фут = 30,48 см

1 yard (yd) ярд = 91,44 см

1 mile (ml) миля = 1,760 yards = 1,609 км

Меры
площади
Square Measure

square inch (in.2) кв.дюйм = 6,45 см"

square foot (ft. 2) кв.фут = 629 см2

square yard (yd.2) кв. ярд = 0,836 м2

acre (а.) акр = 4,8 кв.ярда = 0,405 га

square mile (ml. 2) кв. миля = 640 акров = 295 га = 2,59 км'

township тауншип = 36 кв.миль = 93,24 км:

Меры
объема
Cubic Measure

cubic inch (in.3) куб.дюйм 16,39 см'

cubic foot (ft. 3) куб.фут = 0,028 м3

cubic yard (yd.3) куб. ярд = 27 cubic feet = 0,76 м

stack стек = 4 cubic yards = 3,04 м3

cord (short) корд (малый) (для круглого леса) = 3,568 м3

cord (gross) корд (большой) (для дров) = 3,624 м3

standard стандарт (для пиломатериалов) =- 4,672 м'

freight ton тонна фрахтовая (корабельная) = 40 cubic feet = 1,13м3

Меры
веса
Weight Measure

1
ounce (oz) унция = 28,35 г

1 pound (lb) фунт = 16 ounces = 453,59 г

1 stone стоун = 14 pounds = 6,35 кг

1 hundredweight (cwt) (net, short хандредвейт (малый, короткий) = 100

pounds = 45,36 кг

1 hundredweight (cwt)(gross, long) хандредвейт (большой, длинный)

112 pounds = 50,8 кг

1 ton (ne) (sh.tn) тонна (малая, короткая) = 20 hundredweight (short)

2000 pounds =907,18 кг

1 ton(ne)(tn) тонна (большая, длинная) = 20 hundredweight (long)

1,016 кг

Меры
жидкостей
Liquid Measure

teaspoon чайная ложка 4, 4 миллилитра

tablespoon столовая ложка 3 teaspoons = 14,2 миллилитра

fluid ounce (floz) унция жидкая = 29,57 миллилитра

wineglass рюмка = 2 ounces 56,8 миллилитра

gill джилл (гилл) =- 1,4 pint = 0,118 л

pint (pt) пинта = 0,47л

quart (qt) кварта 2 pints = 1,14л

gallon (gal) галлон = 3,785 л

barrel (for crude oil) баррель (нефть) 138,97 л

barrel (for liquids) баррель (жидк.) 1
19,2 л

Меры сыпучих тел
Dry
Measure

pint (pt) пинта 0,551 л quart (qt) кварта 0,101 л gallon (gal) галлон 3,785 л peck (pk) 7,7 л bushel (bu) =35,2 л barrel (bbl)= 158,98 л

Measurements

six foot two inches seven point three metres three metres by two metres

120

121

RENDERING TECHNIQUES

План аннотации и некоторые выражения для ее написания

The plan of	Some expressions to be used	Translation
the article	while rendering the text
1 . The title	The article is under the title ...	Статья под
of the	заголовком...
article.	The text is headed...	Текст озаглавлен
2. The	The author of the article is ...	Автор статьи...
author of	The article is written by...	Статья написана...
the article,	It is (was) published in...	Статья опубликована.
where and	It is (was) printed in ...	Статья напечатана..,.
when the
article was
published.
3. The main	The main idea of the article is	Основная мысль
idea of the	статьи...
article.	The article is about ...	Статья о ...
The article is devoted to...	Статья посвящена...
The article deals with...	В статье
рассматривается...
The article touches upon...	Статья затрагивает...
The purpose of the article is to	Цель статьи состоит в
give the reader some	том, чтобы сообщить
information on...	читателю...
The aim of the article is to	Цель статьи
provide the reader with some	заключается в том,
material (data) on...	чтобы предоставить
читателю...
4. The	A) The author writes... states...	Автор пишет,
contents of	believes...	сообщает... полагает
the article.	considers... explains...	считает... объясняет
Some facts.	points out... discusses...	указывает, обсуждает
names,	compares...	сравнивает...
figures.	emphasizes...	подчеркивает...
B) The article describes...	В статье описывается
C) According to the text...	Согласно тексту...
Further the author reports	В дальнейшем автор
(says)...	сообщает...

The plan of	Some expressions to be used	Translation
the article	while rendering the text
The article goes on to say that	Дальше в статье
говорится...
D) In conclusion ...	В заключение ...
The author comes to the	Автор приходит к
conclusion that ...	выводу, что ...
5. Your	I found the article interesting,	Я считаю статью
opinion of	important, of no value,	интересной, важной,
the article.	не предоставляющей
ценности,
too hard to understand, dull...	слишком трудной для
понимания, скучной.
The problem (question, issue) is	Проблема (вопрос)
disputable ...	спорная, актуальная...
actual...	Вопрос насущный
The problem is vital (urgent,
burning)...	Статья предназначена
The article is addressed to the	для широкого круга
general reader.	читателей.

122

123

БИБЛИГРАФИЯ

1. Далецкая Т.А. Перемещение грузов (в пределах предприятия). Новосибирск:Новосиб. гос. акад. вод. трансп., 2005.

2. Китаевич Б.Е., Кроленко А.И., Калиновская М.Я. Морские грузовые операции. Пособие по английскому языку. - М.: Высш. шк. - 1991.- 160с.

3. Ashley. A. A handbook of commercial correspondence. Oxford University Press, 1995

4. Ballou Ronald.H. Basic Bussiness Logistics. Transportation, materials management, physical distribution. Prentice Hall International Edition, 1997.-350p.

5. The Britannica Encyclopedia. Deluxe Edition, 1994 - 2002.

_____________________ СОДЕРЖАНИЕ
__________________

ЧАСТЬ 1 ПОЯСНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ЗАПИСКА..................................................... 3

1. Студенты должны изучить следующий теоретический (грамматический) материал:.............................................................................. 4

2. Студенты должны выполнить внеаудиторное чтение (тексты представлены в шестой части данных указаний)....................................... 5

3. Студенты должны выполнить контрольную работу:.......................... 5

4. Отчетность и сроки отчетности.................................................................. 5

Структура и содержание зачета за 3-ий курс.............................................. 6

Структура и содержание экзамена за 4-ый курс......................................... 6

ЧАСТЬ 2. РАЗГОВОРНЫЕ ТЕМЫ 3 КУРС.................................................... 7

I. Transport (Транспорт).................................................................................... 7

II. Logistics (Логистика)...................................................................................... 8

III. Materials handling equipment (Грузо-обрабатывающее оборудование)..................................................................................................... 11

IV. Warehouses (Склады)................................................................................... 15

ЧАСТЬ 3. КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №3..................................................... 18

Вариант 1.............................................................................................................. 18

Вариант 2.............................................................................................................. 20

Вариант 3.............................................................................................................. 22

Вариант 4.............................................................................................................. 24

Вариант 5............................................................................................................. 26

ЧАСТЬ 4. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ И ПЕРЕВОДА (ЗА ЗКУРС)............. 28

HISTORY OF TRANSPORTATION................................................................. 28

ЧАСТЬ 5. РАЗГОВОРНЫЕ ТЕМЫ 4 КУРС................................................. 58

I. Shipping Documentation (Грузовые документы).................................. 58

II. Marine Insurance (Морское страхование)............................................. 59

III. Documents of Title (Товарораспорядительные документы)............. 61

ЧАСТЬ 6. КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №4..................................................... 64

Вариант 1.............................................................................................................. 64

Вариант 2.............................................................................................................. 66

MARINE INSURANCE POLICIES.................................................................. 66

Вариант 3.............................................................................................................. 68

Вариант 4.............................................................................................................. 70

Вариант 5.............................................................................................................. 72

ЧАСТЬ 7. ТЕКСТЫ ДЛЯ ЧТЕНИЯ И ПЕРЕВОДА 4 КУРС..................... 73

ЧАСТЬ 8 ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ................................................................................. 91

ENGLUSH - RUSSIAN COMMENTARIES.................................................... 91

ENGLISH - RUSSIAN DICTIONARY........................................................... 105

124

125

MEASUREMENTS............................................................................................ 120

Основные единицы измерения, принятые в США................................... 120

RENDERING TECHNIQUES.......................................................................... 122

План аннотации и некоторые выражения для ее написания.............. 122

БИБЛИОГРАФИЯ............................................................................................. 124

УЧЕБНОЕ ИЗДАНИЕ

126

Далецкая Татьяна Анатольевна

БАЗОВЫЙ ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНЫЙ
АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

Методические указания

Специальность 190701: «Организация перевозок и управление на транспорте (водном)»

Ответственный за выпуск: Куликова Н.С. Компьютерный набор: Далецкая Т.А. Компьютерная верстка: Шулика И.В.

Подписано к печати 26.02.2009 с оригинал макета.

Бумага офсетная №1, формат 60 х 84 1/16, печать трафаретная - Riso

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ФГОУ ВПО «Новосибирская государственная академия водного транспорта» (ФГОУ ВПО «НГАВТ»), 630099, г. Новосибирск, ул. Щетинки на, 33

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Название реферата: Методические указания Специальность 190701: «Организация перевозок и управление на транспорте (водном)» Новосибирск 2009