Grammar

Subject

It’s
always easy to

It’s
hard to

It’s
important to

It
gives him pleasure to

It’s
dangerous to

It’s
wise of him to

It
does people a lot of good to

It
won’t do you any harm to

It
has become his habit to

It
surprised me to

It
made me feel awkward to

It
was natural to

Part
of a compound verbal modal predicate.

Part
of a compound verbal aspect (вид)
predicate.

1.
Modal verbs: can,
may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would,
shall, need.

2.
Modal expressions had
better, would rather.

The
verbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition,
the end of the action: to
begin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, used
to+Inf, would + Inf.

Part
of a compound nominal predicate.

predicative

part
of a predicative

It
is hard to please.

She
is easy to deal with.

She
is pleasant to look at.

The
article is difficult to translate.

He
was difficult to convince.

To
order, to agree, to forget, to remember…

To
be glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

To
order, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, to
instruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, to
encourage…

To
find, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting,
necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to do
smth.

Class
nouns.

Abstract
nouns

Experience
of quantity (much, little..)

Indefinite
pronouns (smb, anybody…)

The
adjective last.

Ordinal
numerals ( the 1st,
2nd..)

Adverbial
modifier (обстоятельство)

of
purpose.

of
result

comparison
(manner) (сравнение)

attendant
circumstances (сопутствующих
обстоятельств)

By
the conjunctions in
order, so as.

Without
any conjunction.

Too
hot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry)
to do smth.

Clever
(experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to do
smth.

So
cruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

Such
a man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as to
do smth.

By
the conjunctions as
if, than, as though.

The
adverb never,
the
particle
only.

To
cut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (короче
говоря).

To
say the least (чтобы не
сказать больше).

To
tell you the truth – to speak the truth (по
правде говоря).

To
put it mildly (мягко
говоря).

To
say nothing of (не
говоря уже)

To
be frank (откравенно
говоря).

Without
the particle to:

after
verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, to
observe, to notice, to feel)

After
verbs of compulsion (принуждение)
(то
make, to have).

After
the verb to
let.

Without
particle to:

After
verbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные):
to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to
expect, to find, to understand.

After
the verbs denoting declaring: to
pronounce, to declare, to report;
wish & intention:
to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean;
after
verbs denoting feeling & emotion: to
like, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

After
verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

1.
After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, to
watch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(only
the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is
passive we use Participle II)

Note:
to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

To
hear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.After
verbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider,
to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel,
to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). Perfect
Infinitive is seldom used.

3.After
verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

After
verbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, to
desire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

After
verbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, to
love, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

After
verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, to
suffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by a
noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when the
infinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

After
verbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить),
to
cause(заставить,
распорядиться),
to
get(добиться),
to have(заставить,
сказать, чтобы).

With
the preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)

With
verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If a
process is expressed Participle I is used).

With
verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know,
to believe, to suppose.

With
the verb to make.

With
verbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личное
предложение).

With
the verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

With
pairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & to
chance(случайно),
to prove & to turn out(оказалось).

The
Subject(often with the introductory it)

Predicative

Complex
object.

Attribute.

Adverbial
modifier

a)of
purpose

b)of
result

It’s
always easy to

It’s
hard to

It’s
important to

It
gives him pleasure to

It’s
dangerous to

It’s
wise of him to

It
does people a lot of good to

It
won’t do you any harm to

It
has become his habit to

It
surprised me to

It
made me feel awkward to

It
was natural to

Part
of a compound verbal modal predicate.

Part
of a compound verbal aspect (вид)
predicate.

1.
Modal verbs: can,
may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would,
shall, need.

2.
Modal expressions had
better, would rather.

The
verbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition,
the end of the action: to
begin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, used
to+Inf, would + Inf.

Part
of a compound nominal predicate.

predicative

part
of a predicative

It
is hard to please.

She
is easy to deal with.

She
is pleasant to look at.

The
article is difficult to translate.

He
was difficult to convince.

To
order, to agree, to forget, to remember…

To
be glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

To
order, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, to
instruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, to
encourage…

To
find, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting,
necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to do
smth.

Class
nouns.

Abstract
nouns

Experience
of quantity (much, little..)

Indefinite
pronouns (smb, anybody…)

The
adjective last.

Ordinal
numerals ( the 1st,
2nd..)

Adverbial
modifier (обстоятельство)

of
purpose.

of
result

comparison
(manner) (сравнение)

attendant
circumstances (сопутствующих
обстоятельств)

By
the conjunctions in
order, so as.

Without
any conjunction.

Too
hot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry)
to do smth.

Clever
(experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to do
smth.

So
cruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

Such
a man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as to
do smth.

By
the conjunctions as
if, than, as though.

The
adverb never,
the
particle
only.

By
the conjunctions as if, as thought, than

Adverb
never,
the participle only

To
cut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (короче
говоря).

To
say the least (чтобы не
сказать больше).

To
tell you the truth – to speak the truth (по
правде говоря).

To
put it mildly (мягко
говоря).

To
say nothing of (не
говоря уже)

To
be frank (откравенно
говоря).

Without
the particle to:

after
verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, to
observe, to notice, to feel)

After
verbs of compulsion (принуждение)
(то
make, to have).

After
the verb to
let.

Without
particle to:

After
verbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные):
to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to
expect, to find, to understand.

After
the verbs denoting declaring: to
pronounce, to declare, to report;
wish & intention:
to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean;
after
verbs denoting feeling & emotion: to
like, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

After
verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

1.
After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, to
watch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(only
the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is
passive we use Participle II)

Note:
to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

To
hear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.After
verbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider,
to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel,
to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). Perfect
Infinitive is seldom used.

3.After
verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

After
verbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, to
desire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

After
verbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, to
love, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

After
verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, to
suffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by a
noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when the
infinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

After
verbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить),
to
cause(заставить,
распорядиться),
to
get(добиться),
to have(заставить,
сказать, чтобы).

With
the preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)

With
verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If a
process is expressed Participle I is used).

With
verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know,
to believe, to suppose.

With
the verb to make.

With
verbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личное
предложение).

With
the verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

With
pairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & to
chance(случайно),
to prove & to turn out(оказалось).

The
Subject(often with the introductory it)

Predicative

Complex
object.

Attribute.

Adverbial
modifier

a)of
purpose

b)of
result

PARTICIPLE
I

1.Attribute
(Participle I Indefinite Active & Passive).

If
we have a participle used as an attribute to a noun (in
pre-position), the noun performs the action expressed by the –ing
form.(a
touching story-a story that can touch, a laughing girl-a girl who
is laughing).

Participle
I Perfect can be used only as an adverbial modifier & never
as an attribute. To express priority an attribute clause is used:
The student who has shown the countries of America on the map is
going to his seat.

Sometimes
the Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to no
particular time: Taiga is a thick forest stretching to the south
of tundra.

2.Predicative
(Participle I Indefinite Active).

To
be astonishing, to be disappointing, to be exciting, to be
humiliating (оскорбительно,
унизительно),
to be inviting (заманчивый),
to be tempting
(привлекательный),
to be terrifying (ужасный),
to be touching.

3.Parenthesis.(Participle
I Indefinite Active)

Generally
speaking, judging by appearance (words)(судя
по внешнему
виду), mildly
speaking(спокойно),
speaking frankly, strictly speaking, saying nothing of, roughly
speaking.

4.Adverbial
modifier of clause(reason) (PI Indefinite Active,

PI
Indefinite Passive;

PI
Perfect Active, PI Perfect Passive).

Not
knowing the topic well, he got confused.

Being
impressed by the duel scene in ”Hamlet”, they were
silent on the way home.

Having
lost the book, the students couldn’t prepare for the topic.

Having
been left alone, the child felt miserable & lonely

5.Adverbial
modifier of comparison.

PI
Indefinite Act

She
shivered with fright as if realizing the danger.

6.Adverbial
modifier of attendant circumstances(manner)

Participle
Ind Act

I
spent the morning on the cliff reading.

7.
Adverbial modifier of time.

PI
Ind Act

PI
Ind Pas

PI
Perf Act

PI
Ind Pas

The
action expressed by a participle in the function of an adv. mod
always refers the to the subject of the whole sentence.

With
such verbs as to
see, to hear, to notice, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look,
to enter, to turn, to close, to open, to cross. PI
Ind Act is used to express a prior action when the action
expressed by the finite verb closely follows the action expressed
by the P: Seeing that it was useless to argue with him, I dropped
the subject.

The
conjunctions ”when” & “while” are
often used with PI Ind Act to express an action in progress
simultaneous with that of the finite verb: While making a tour of
England, we were impressed by its beauty.

PI
Ind of the verb “to be” is not used as an adverbial
modifier of time: “Когда
я был в Москве»=”When
in Moscow”

Attribute

PII
of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное
причастие or
действительное
причастие of
some verbs ending in –ся
a
broken chair (сломанный
стул), a
newspaper published in Moscow (газета,
издаваемая
в Москве).
PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (without
any accompanying words). He answered through the locked
door.
(Он
ответил через
открытую дверь).
They turned into the large conservatory beautifully
lit up with Chinese lamps.
(Они
свернули в
небольшую
оранжерею,
красиво освещённую
китайскими
фонариками)

PII
of intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state,
corresponds to the Russian действительное
причастие or
to an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb may
be used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs to
fade(увядать),
to
wither(искушать,
губить),to
retire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать).
Faded
leaves (увядшие
листья).

An
attribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён);
in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial
modifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted
by the violent ringing of the ball.
(Экономка
вышла из своей
комнаты, привлечённая
неистовым
звоном колокольчика.)

Adverbial
modifier.

Of
time

Condition

Comparison

Concession
(уступка)

When
guestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxious
about her brother-in-law. (Когда
Энни стали
расспрашивать,
она дала понять,
что беспокоится
о своём шурине).

It
was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the law
which, if
discovered,

PARTICIPLE
I

1.Attribute
(Participle I Indefinite Active & Passive).

If
we have a participle used as an attribute to a noun (in
pre-position), the noun performs the action expressed by the –ing
form.(a
touching story-a story that can touch, a laughing girl-a girl who
is laughing).

Participle
I Perfect can be used only as an adverbial modifier & never
as an attribute. To express priority an attribute clause is used:
The student who has shown the countries of America on the map is
going to his seat.

Sometimes
the Participle I Indefinite denotes an action referring to no
particular time: Taiga is a thick forest stretching to the south
of tundra.

2.Predicative
(Participle I Indefinite Active).

To
be astonishing, to be disappointing, to be exciting, to be
humiliating (оскорбительно,
унизительно),
to be inviting (заманчивый),
to be tempting
(привлекательный),
to be terrifying (ужасный),
to be touching.

3.Parenthesis.(Participle
I Indefinite Active)

Generally
speaking, judging by appearance (words)(судя
по внешнему
виду), mildly
speaking(спокойно),
speaking frankly, strictly speaking, saying nothing of, roughly
speaking.

4.Adverbial
modifier of clause(reason) (PI Indefinite Active,

PI
Indefinite Passive;

PI
Perfect Active, PI Perfect Passive).

Not
knowing the topic well, he got confused.

Being
impressed by the duel scene in ”Hamlet”, they were
silent on the way home.

Having
lost the book, the students couldn’t prepare for the topic.

Having
been left alone, the child felt miserable & lonely

5.Adverbial
modifier of comparison.

PI
Indefinite Act

She
shivered with fright as if realizing the danger.

6.Adverbial
modifier of attendant circumstances(manner)

Participle
Ind Act

I
spent the morning on the cliff reading.

7.
Adverbial modifier of time.

PI
Ind Act

PI
Ind Pas

PI
Perf Act

PI
Ind Pas

The
action expressed by a participle in the function of an adv. mod
always refers the to the subject of the whole sentence.

With
such verbs as to
see, to hear, to notice, to come, to arrive, to seize, to look,
to enter, to turn, to close, to open, to cross. PI
Ind Act is used to express a prior action when the action
expressed by the finite verb closely follows the action expressed
by the P: Seeing that it was useless to argue with him, I dropped
the subject.

The
conjunctions ”when” & “while” are
often used with PI Ind Act to express an action in progress
simultaneous with that of the finite verb: While making a tour of
England, we were impressed by its beauty.

PI
Ind of the verb “to be” is not used as an adverbial
modifier of time: “Когда
я был в Москве»=”When
in Moscow”

Attribute

PII
of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное
причастие or
действительное
причастие of
some verbs ending in –ся
a
broken chair (сломанный
стул), a
newspaper published in Moscow (газета,
издаваемая
в Москве).
PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (without
any accompanying words). He answered through the locked
door.
(Он
ответил через
открытую дверь).
They turned into the large conservatory beautifully
lit up with Chinese lamps.
(Они
свернули в
небольшую
оранжерею,
красиво освещённую
китайскими
фонариками)

PII
of intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state,
corresponds to the Russian действительное
причастие or
to an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb may
be used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs to
fade(увядать),
to
wither(искушать,
губить),to
retire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать).
Faded
leaves (увядшие
листья).

An
attribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён);
in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial
modifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted
by the violent ringing of the ball.
(Экономка
вышла из своей
комнаты, привлечённая
неистовым
звоном колокольчика.)

Adverbial
modifier.

Of
time

Condition

Comparison

Concession
(уступка)

When
guestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxious
about her brother-in-law. (Когда
Энни стали
расспрашивать,
она дала понять,
что беспокоится
о своём шурине).

It
was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the law
which, if
discovered,
would bring them into the police court. То,
что он предлагал,
было ужасно:
это было нарушение
закона, и, если
бы оно открылось,
их отдали бы
под суд.

As
if torn with inner conflict & indecision,
he cried.Он
плакал, словно
его мучили
внутренняя
борьба и сомнения.

Her
spirit, though
crushed,
wasn’t broken-хотя
она и не была
подавлена,
но не была
сломлена.

Attribute

PII
of transitive verbs corresponds to the Russian страдательное
причастие or
действительное
причастие of
some verbs ending in –ся
a
broken chair (сломанный
стул), a
newspaper published in Moscow (газета,
издаваемая
в Москве).
PII can be used in post-position & in pre-position (without
any accompanying words). He answered through the locked
door.
(Он
ответил через
открытую дверь).
They turned into the large conservatory beautifully
lit up with Chinese lamps.
(Они
свернули в
небольшую
оранжерею,
красиво освещённую
китайскими
фонариками)

PII
of intransitive verbs, which denote passing into a new state,
corresponds to the Russian действительное
причастие or
to an adjective. Only in few cases PII of an intransitive verb may
be used attributively, mostly PII of the verbs to
fade(увядать),
to
wither(искушать,
губить),to
retire, to fall/ to vanish(исчезать).
Faded
leaves (увядшие
листья).

An
attribute expressed by the PII may be detached (отделён);
in this case it often has an additional meaning of an adverbial
modifier: The housekeeper had come out of her room, attracted
by the violent ringing of the ball.
(Экономка
вышла из своей
комнаты, привлечённая
неистовым
звоном колокольчика.)

Adverbial
modifier.

Of
time

Condition

Comparison

Concession
(уступка)

When
guestonied Annie had implied vaguely…that she was anxious
about her brother-in-law. (Когда
Энни стали
расспрашивать,
она дала понять,
что беспокоится
о своём шурине).

It
was a dreadful thing that he now proposed, a breach of the law
which, if
discovered,
would bring them into the police court. То,
что он предлагал,
было ужасно:
это было нарушение
закона, и, если
бы оно открылось,
их отдали бы
под суд.

As
if torn with inner conflict & indecision,
he cried.Он
плакал, словно
его мучили
внутренняя
борьба и сомнения.

Her
spirit, though
crushed,
wasn’t broken-хотя
она и не была
подавлена,
но не была
сломлена.

It’s
always easy to

It’s
hard to

It’s
important to

It
gives him pleasure to

It’s
dangerous to

It’s
wise of him to

It
does people a lot of good to

It
won’t do you any harm to

It
has become his habit to

It
surprised me to

It
made me feel awkward to

It
was natural to

Part
of a compound verbal modal predicate.

Part
of a compound verbal aspect (вид)
predicate.

1.
Modal verbs: can,
may, must, to be to, to have to, should, ought, will, would,
shall, need.

2.
Modal expressions had
better, would rather.

The
verbs expressing the beginning, the duration, the repetition,
the end of the action: to
begin, to start, to commence, to continue, to cease, used
to+Inf, would + Inf.

Part
of a compound nominal predicate.

predicative

part
of a predicative

It
is hard to please.

She
is easy to deal with.

She
is pleasant to look at.

The
article is difficult to translate.

He
was difficult to convince.

To
order, to agree, to forget, to remember…

To
be glad, to be happy, to be delighted…

To
order, to teach, to ask. To help, to assist, to tell, to
instruct, to request, to advise, to beg, to invite, to
encourage…

To
find, to consider, to think, to make, to feel

It

{Interesting,
necessary, impossible, cruel, useful, hopeful, hopeless} to do
smth.

Class
nouns.

Abstract
nouns

Experience
of quantity (much, little..)

Indefinite
pronouns (smb, anybody…)

The
adjective last.

Ordinal
numerals ( the 1st,
2nd..)

Adverbial
modifier (обстоятельство)

of
purpose.

of
result

comparison
(manner) (сравнение)

attendant
circumstances (сопутствующих
обстоятельств)

By
the conjunctions in
order, so as.

Without
any conjunction.

Too
hot (skilled, excited, shocked, frightened, impressed, angry)
to do smth.

Clever
(experienced, skilled, strong, old, sharp, brave) enough to do
smth.

So
cruel (impressed, careless) as to do smth.

Such
a man ( a fool, a woman, a son, a student, a sportsmen) as to
do smth.

By
the conjunctions as
if, than, as though.

The
adverb never,
the
particle
only.

By
the conjunctions as if, as thought, than

Adverb
never,
the participle only

To
cut a long story short, to put it in a nutshell (короче
говоря).

To
say the least (чтобы не
сказать больше).

To
tell you the truth – to speak the truth (по
правде говоря).

To
put it mildly (мягко
говоря).

To
say nothing of (не
говоря уже)

To
be frank (откравенно
говоря).

Without
the particle to:

after
verbs of sense perception (to see, to hear, to watch, to
observe, to notice, to feel)

After
verbs of compulsion (принуждение)
(то
make, to have).

After
the verb to
let.

Without
particle to:

After
verbs denoting mental ability (интеллектуальные):
to know, to think, to consider, to believe, to suppose, to
expect, to find, to understand.

After
the verbs denoting declaring: to
pronounce, to declare, to report;
wish & intention:
to want, to wish, to desire, should like, to intend, to mean;
after
verbs denoting feeling & emotion: to
like, to dislike, to love to hate, cannot bear.

After
verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow.

1.
After verbs denoting sense perception: to hear, to see, to
watch, to observe, to notice, etc.

(only
the Indefinite Infinitive Active is used. If the meaning is
passive we use Participle II)

Note:
to see=to understand: we don’t use the construction.

To
hear=to lern, to be told: we use a clause of a gerund.

2.After
verbs denoting mental activity: to know, to think, to consider,
to believe, to suppose, to expect, to imagine, to find, to feel,
to trust, etc. After them- to be( not after expect). Perfect
Infinitive is seldom used.

3.After
verbs of declaring: to pronounce, to declare, to report.

After
verbs denoting wish & intention: to want, to wish, to
desire, to mean, to intend, to choose.

After
verbs denoting feeling & emotions: to like, to dislike, to
love, to hate, cannot bear, etc.

After
verbs denoting order & permission: to order, to allow, to
suffer, to have, etc. !!! Only if the object is expressed by a
noun or pronoun denoting a lifeless thing or when the
infinitive is passive( not for to suffer & to have.

After
verbs denoting compulsion: to to make(заставить),
to
cause(заставить,
распорядиться),
to
get(добиться),
to have(заставить,
сказать, чтобы).

With
the preposition for, on & upon(after to rely)

With
verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear, etc.(If a
process is expressed Participle I is used).

With
verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know,
to believe, to suppose.

With
the verb to make.

With
verbs to say & to report( translation-неопределённо-личное
предложение).

With
the verbs to be likely, to be sure, to be certain.

With
pairs of synonyms: to seem & to appear, to happen & to
chance(случайно),
to prove & to turn out(оказалось).

The
Subject(often with the introductory it)

Predicative

Complex
object.

Attribute.

Adverbial
modifier

a)of
purpose

b)of
result