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EATING
TRADITIONS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

In
most of Asia, especially China, Korea, and Vietnam, the New Year
begins with the first full moon of the first Chinese lunar month.
Special
foods are eaten in each region.

In
China, foods are prepared ahead (using a knife during New Year's
might "cut luck") and include dishes with names that sound
auspicious, such as tangerines (good fortune), fish (surplus), and
chestnuts (profit). Meats, fried dishes (such as fried rice
dumplings), and alcoholic beverages (which are all considered yang,
or strong foods) are also common. In Korea, soup containing small
glutinous rice cakes or steamed dumplings are a must. In Vietnam,
bahn
chung,
a glutinous rice cake filled with meat and beans cooked in banana
leaves is a New Year's specialty. Pork with lotus root and shark fin
soup are also favored. Small mandarin trees in full fruit are
purchased for each home as a sign of hospitality.

One
tradition practiced in both China and Vietnam has to do with the
annual report on the family's past activities to the gods, who then
determine the following year's fortune. In Chinese culture, an
offering is made a week before the New Year to the picture of the
Chinese Kitchen God hung in most homes. The food is usually sweet and
sticky, so that when the God departs to Heaven to make his report, he
will only say favorable things (in some regions the lips in the
picture are actually smeared with honey or malt). In Vietnam, it is
Ong
Tao
(Spirit of the Hearth), he is represented by 3 small stones and
honored at his altar with a sweet soy bean soup and sweet rice cakes.

In
Japan on
New Year's day, 10 to 20 dishes, collectively called
Osechi ryori,
are served. Each dish represents a different value desired for the
new year, such as fish eggs for fertility, root vegetables for
stability, black beans for health, kombu
(seaweed)
for happiness, and mashed sweet potatoes to keep away the evil
spirits. Otoso,
a special rice wine, is served. In many homes, mochi,
a rice cake made by pounding hot rice into a sticky dough is
traditional. A Buddhist o
sonae mochi
may be set up to preserve good luck and happiness in future
generations. It consists of a large mochi on the bottom, which is the
foundation provided by the older generation. A smaller mochi
representing the younger generation is placed on top, followed by a
tangerine symbolizing the generations to come.

In
Greece, a sweet bread called vasilopitta is
prepared with a coin baked into it for New Year's. The person who
gets the piece with the coin in has good luck in the upcoming year.
In the U.S. South, black-eyed peas (sometimes known as hoppin' johns)
are traditionally served for luck on New Year's day. Throughout much
of the world, the beginning of the new year is seen as an opportunity
to celebrate life and influence the future!

EATING TRADITIONS
IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

The
beginning of the New Year is celebrated by many cultures on January
1st. Some celebrations, such as in the U.S., take place on the
evening before the new year, featuring drinking, sweets, and general
frivolity. In Spain and Portugal, it is customary to eat twelve
grapes or raisins at each stroke of the clock at midnight (a similar
practice takes place in the Philippines following the New Year's Eve
fiesta meal, but only 7 grapes are eaten). In Poland, jelly doughnuts
(paczki)are
traditional of New Year's Eve. In Scotland, New Year's Eve is called
Hogmanay
complete with festive partying and foods such as triangular
shortbread (calle hogmanays), scones, bannocks, black bun, ginger
bread, and haggis,
a pudding made from sheep's stomach stuffed with oatmeal and innards
is drenched in Scotch whiskey before it is eaten. It's considered bad
luck to propose marriage, carry out the garbage, break any glass
during the evening, and good luck to see a dark-haired person as the
first visitor of the new year (originating during the time a blond
Viking at the door meant rape and pillage!). Auld Lang Syne, a
Scottish song dating back to the early 1700s, is sung at midnight. In
other societies, New Year's day is the more significant holiday. In
Russia, children receive gifts and ginger cakes are eaten. In Japan,
New Year's is a 7-day festival, starting on January 1st (unlike many
Asian cultures which use a lunar calendar--see below--Japan converted
to a solar calendar in 1868). Homes are cleaned, all debts are
cleared, and food is prepared ahead for the week so that no cooking
is done during the holiday. On New Year's day, 10 to 20 dishes,
collectively called
Osechi ryori,
are served on a set of nesting, lacquered boxes. Each dish represents
a different value desired for the new year, such as fish eggs for
fertility, root vegetables for stability, black beans for health,
kombu
(seaweed)
for happiness, and mashed sweet potatoes to keep away the evil
spirits. Otoso,
a special rice wine, is served. In many homes, mochi,
a rice cake made by pounding hot rice into a sticky dough is
traditional. A Buddhist o
sonae mochi
may be set up to preserve good luck and happiness in future
generations. It consists of a large mochi on the bottom, which is the
foundation provided by the older generation. A smaller mochi
representing the younger generation is placed on top, followed by a
tangerine symbolizing the generations to come. Even in regions of the
world where there are no elaborate traditions, favorite family dishes
are served on new year's day, or "lucky" dishes are eaten.
In Greece, a sweet bread called vasilopitta
is
prepared with a coin baked into it for New Year's. The person who
gets the piece with the coin in has good luck in the upcoming year.
In the U.S. South, black-eyed peas (sometimes known as hoppin' johns)
are traditionally served for luck on New Year's day. Throughout much
of the world, the beginning of the new year in January is seen as an
opportunity to celebrate life and influence the future!

Houses of Parliament

From
the center of Westminster Bridge one can have a splendid view of the
H. of P. The structure is a remarkable example of Gothic
architecture. Royal Palaces and houses were built along the banks of
the Thames in medie’val days, because the water was a busy way
into and out of London. The H.P. called officially the Palace of
Westmister were a palace for queens and kings. The palace was used
both as a royal residence and also as a parliament house until the
16th
century. In 1834 the H.P. were destroyed by the fire. Sir Charles
Barry was asked to plan the building and August Pugin was
commissioned to make it look gothic. The result is the Palace of
Westminster. The odd combination of these two men produced a triumph.
The H.P. is the biggest Gothic palace in the world, and by far the
most impressive. During the Second World War a bomb destroyed the
House of Commons – the principal chamber in the whole complex
It was decided to rebuild it exactly the same size. The H.P. contain
the universal symbol of L., Big Ben. B.B. is actually the name of the
biggest bell inside the Clock Tower which forms part of the H.P.

The Palace of
Westminster has two miles of corridors and more than 1000 rooms. When
Parliament is sitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. The House
of Lords looks more splendid with its beautiful red benches than the
House of Commons. There is the throne for the Queen and the woolsack
for the Lord Chancellor there. Visitors can watch the Parliament at
work from the Strangers’ Gallery. The Speaker sits on the green
chair.

Parliament
Square

Westminster Abbey is on one side, the Houses of
Parliament on the other. The buildings of the Houses of Parliament is
not old, it dates only from the 19th
century, and is in the Gothic style. When the Parliament has a
sitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. It is the national flag
of the United Kingdom. Another tower, the Clock Tower, is famous for
the hour bell and the clock named “Big Ben”. Only a short
way from the Houses of Parliament there is one of the most beautiful
of all English buildings – W.A., founded in the 11th
century. There are many tombstones, monuments and statues there. For
nearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of England – 41 in
all – have been crowned here. If u go past the magnificent
tombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold and precious stones
u will come to the Poets’ Corner. There many of the greatest
writers were buried. Geoffrey Chauser, Samuel Johnson, Charles
Dickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling. Burns and
Byron, Walter Scott and the great American poet Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow. Here in the Abbey there is also the Grave of the Unknown
Warrior that commemorate the men who died on the First World War.

The
square has a lot of statues including Richard the Pion-Hearted, and
Oliver Cromvell. It also has the masterpiece of Sir Henry Mur –
the statue of Sir Winston Churchill.

St.Paul’s Cathedral

The City’s greatest monument
and on of the finest Renaissance cathedrals in Europe is St.Paul’s
Cathedral. The old cathedral was completely destroyed by the Great
Fire of London in 1666. People put their belongings in the church,
thinking it was safe, but the fire soon reached it. It was so hot it
turned the church bells into molten metal. Christopher When a famous
English architect, was commissioned to rebuild Saint Paul’s. He
made several plans before one was accepted. In the Crypt of the
church you can see scale models of his rejected designs. It took
nearly 35 years to build the Cathedral, being finished in 1710.
Running around the interior of the dome is the famous Whispering
Gallery. It is called so because you can clearly hear the whisper
made by someone who is standing on the opposite side of the gallery.
Big Paul, the heaviest bell in the country, is in the northern bell
tower at the front of Saint Paul’s. It rings every weekday at 1
p.m. to let people know that it is lunchtime. Another bell Big Tom,
tolls when a monarch or important churchmen die. The church bells in
the other tower are rung on Sundays and to celebrate great occasions.

The City

All the principle streets of London
lead to the heart of the City, the financial and business center of
Great Britain. The City is about one square mile in area and only a
few thousand people live there. But by day, many people swarm its
streets and offices. Here there are the Bank of England, The Stock
Exchange and headquarters of many of the richest companies and
corporations in the world. The City’s greatest monument and on
of the finest Renaissance cathedrals in Europe is St.Paul’s
Cathedral. The old cathedral was completely destroyed by the Great
Fire of London in 1666. People put their belongings in the church,
thinking it was safe, but the fire soon reached it. It was so hot it
turned the church bells into molten metal. Christopher When a famous
English architect, was commissioned to rebuild Saint Paul’s. He
made several plans before one was accepted. Running around the
interior of the dome is the famous Whispering Gallery. It is called
so because you can clearly hear the whisper made by someone who is
standing on the opposite side of the gallery.

Tower Bridge is the only Thames
bridge which can be raised. The road over the bridge is built on two
central sections called bascules, which open two or three times a
week to let ships through. There are displays inside the bridge on
its history. (T.S.+W.A.+H.P.)

Tanya Marzhanovskaya
Group 106 26 February, 2001The Climate of the British Isles

The position of Great Britain gives it a temperate
climate. Britain lies in the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean. It
is surrounded by the sea which makes the climate warmer in winter and
cooler in summer. The Gulf Stream influences the English climate
greatly. The climate is not the same in all parts of England. The
western part is warmer than the eastern one and it also has more
rains. The western hills and mountains shut out some of the mild wind
from the Atlantic. On Western coast gales are always strong. The
south-western winds are the most frequent. They usually bring mild
weather. There is much humidity in the air. Britain is well known as
a foggy country. The annual temperature in London is about 8 degrees
C.

Scotland is a part of Britain and Wales. Scotland is
bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the North
Sea, on the southeast by England, southwest by the Irish Sea and on
the west by the Western Isles. Like the climate of the rest of Great
Britain, that of Scotland is subject to the moderating influences of
the surrounding seas. As a result of these influences, extreme
seasonal variations are rare, and temperate winters and cool summers
are the outstanding climatic features. Low temperatures, however, are
common during the winter season in the mountainous districts of the
interior. In the western coastal region, which is subject to the
moderating effects of the Gulf Stream, conditions are somewhat milder
than is the east. The average temperature in January is 4 degrees C
and in July is about 15 degrees C. Scotland’s weather is
similar to Wales and England.

Wales is a part of the United Kingdom. It also includes
the mall island off Wales called Anglesey. Wales is bounded on the
North by the Irish Sea, on the east by the English counties, on the
South by the Bristol Channel, and the west by Saint George. Wales is
almost all mountains. The tops of the mountains are covered with the
snow. The climate in Wales is very moist and mild like in the United
Kingdom. The average temperature in January is about 6 degrees C and
in July is about 16 degrees C.

Ireland’s climate is mainly determined by its
position in the north temperate zone and the effect of the warm
waters of the Gulf Stream. The climate is relatively uniform
throughout. The prevailing west winds carry rain from the Atlantic,
resulting in heavier rainfall in the western and southern parts of
the country. Summers are relatively cool, with July and August being
the warmest months, whilst winters are relatively mild with January
and February being the coldest months. Snow falls occasionally in
winter months but it is rarely prolonged and usually only lasts for a
few days.

The Royal
Residences

Kensington
Palace is a royal palace in London. Originally a private country
house, the building was acquired by William III and Mary II in 1689
and was adopted for royal residence by Sir Christopher Wren.
Kensington House as it was known became William and Mary’s
principal residence. For the next 70 years the palace was at the
center of the life and government of the kingdom and played host to
the courts of William and Mary, Queen Anne, George I and George II.

In the XIX century Kensington was the birthplace
and home of Princess Victoria (later Queen Victoria). By the end of
19th
century, the State Apartments at Kensington Palace were in a very bad
state of repair having been used as stores for paintings and
furnishings from other palaces. In April 1897 a decision was made to
restore the palace and Parliament agreed to fund the work on the
condition that the building should be opened up to the public. Parts
of the palace remains a private residence for members of the royal
family, the State Apartments and Royal Ceremonial Dress Collection
are open to the public.

Buckingham
Palace is the London home of the Queen and Prince Philip. The Palace
is also the administrative headquarters of the monarchy. The Queen
receives visiting heads of state at the palace and it is here that
the Queen holds garden parties and bestowed knighthoods and other
honours. Foot Guards from the Household Division in their distinctive
red tunics and black bearskins, can be seen on guard duty outside the
palace daily. The Changing the Guard ceremony now takes place only
every other day in the winter but it is still daily in the summer
months. After a serious fire damaged Winsdor Castle in 1993 the Queen
allowed the Palace State rooms to be opened to the public for the
first time, to help pay the Winsdor Castle repair bill.

The Tower of London

The Tower of London doesn’t
belong to the City, though it stood there for almost 900 years. It is
more connected with the royal dynasties than with the world of
business. It was originally built as a fortress to guard the river
approaches to London. The Tower of London was begun by William the
Conqueror in 1078 as a castle and palace. Since then it has been
expanded, and used as an armoury, a zoo, a royal mint and a prison, a
treasury and an observatory. A group of ravens live at the Tower. The
tradition goes that if they disappear the building will collapse. For
centuries a royal zoo was kept in the grounds. It once included a
polar bear, which fished and swam in the moat. Now it is a museum and
the Beefeaters (Yeoman Warders) guard the Tower. They used to be the
monarch’s private bodyguard. Beefeater was a medieval nickname
for well-fed servants. They wear a Tudor-style uniform of blue or
red. They willingly show visitors the main places of interest. In
some Tower rooms there are inscriptions carved on the walls by former
prisoners. In Salt Tower you can see a complicated astronomical clock
carved by a sixteenth century prisoner accused of black magic.

Trafalgar Square

T.S.
is London’s geographical center. It was laid out during the
early part of the 19th
century to commemorate the naval victory of Britain over the French
at Trafalgar in 1805, in which Admiral Lord Nelson took part and was
fatally wounded. The Nelson column with the statue of Admiral Nelson
on top of it is 185 feet (5 metres) high. At the base of the column
you can see four bronze lions which are guarding it and were cast
from the cannon of battleships. On October 21st
there is a service under the column to commemorate Nelson. The east
and west sides of the square are gracefully flanked by plane trees.
Beyond the terrace above the north side stands the National Gallery;
on the lawns in front of the Gallery stands a statue of James II, to
the west of the main entrance, and to the east a statue of George
Washington. Among other important buildings surrounding the square
are the church of St.Martin-in-the-Fields. T.S. has long been the
place for political meetings and demonstrations, including those of
the Chartists who began their march here in 1848. More recently it
has become the terminal point of protest marches. Every year at
Christmas time an enormous Christmas tree is erected, the annual
gift, since the 2nd
World War, of the Norwegian people. On New Year’s Eve T.S.. is
always the scene of celebrations. Not far from T.S. there is a quiet
little street with very ordinary houses. So you may be surprised to
see a policeman who is standing at one of the houses. It is Downing
Street and for the last two hundred years at No.10 each Prime
Minister of England has been living there. Downing Street leads to
Whitehall. There was a palace here once, where from the 12th
to the 16th
century the English Kings and Queens were living. Now it is just a
street of government offices. Here in the middle of the read there is
simple but impressive Cenotaph, the Memorial to the men who died in
the two World Wars.

Westminster
Abbey

W.A was founded in the 11th
century. It is a fine Gothic building, which stands opposite the
Houses of Parliament. It is the work of many hands and different
ages. The oldest part of the building dates from the eights century.
It was a monastery – the West Minster. In the 11th
century Edward the Confessor founded a great Norman Abbey. One of the
greater glories of the Abbey is the Chapel of Henry VII. The Chapel
is of stone and glass, so wonderfully cut and sculptured that it
seems unreal. There are many tombstones, monuments and statues in the
Abbey. For nearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of England –
41 in all – have been crowned here. If u go past the
magnificent tombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold and
precious stones u will come to the Poets’ Corner. There many of
the greatest writers were buried. Geoffrey Chauser, Samuel Johnson,
Charles Dickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling.
Burns and Byron, Walter Scott and the great American poet Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow. Here in the Abbey there is also the Grave of
the Unknown Warrior that commemorate the men who died on the First
World War.

THE UNITED
STATES OF AMERICA

The United
States of America, popularly called "The States". "U.S.A",
"The Land of Liberty" is a vast country stretching across
the middle of North America. This country which at one time inhabited
by Red Indians, is now the home of "nation of nations". as
people from every part of the world have gone to live in this land of
wealth and promise. These settlers met, mingled, and worked with
great enterprise, and as a result of their efforts, the United States
has become one of the most important countries in the world.

In
1620 the; Pilgrim
Fathers, a band of Puritans in England who sought freedom of worship,
set forth for America in the sailing-ship Mayflower. Three months
after leaving Plymouth Harbour, they reached the shores of what is
now called new England, and Founded the America township of Plymouth.
Although they often had difficult times with the native Red Indian
tribes, the colony soon prospered and more and more settlers joined
them. The Indians used a new kind of grain, which the settlers called
"Indian corn" (now termed maize) and they ate strange birds
called turkeys. On the fourth Thursday of November the Americans
celebrate Thanksgiving Day with a feast of turkey and Indian corn.

A great many
emigrants went from European countries to America and thirteen
colonies were formed, all of them under English rule. The government
in England, however, took little interest in the American colonies,
except from the point of view of trade. When certain taxes and laws
were ordered by the English Parliament, the colonists opposed them
and it gradually led to war. At first the colonists fared badly, but
later they rallied and eventually won final victory, under the able
leadership of George Washington.

Shortly after
the discovery of the New World by Columbus, many Spaniards travelled
northward from Mexico and settled along the western coast of America.
That is why many places in this area such as San Francisco, Los
Angeles, Sacramento, and Santa Barbara have Spanish names. In 1849
the chance discovery of gold brought many people to California and
numerous mining towns sprang up in a very short time. "The
Golden Gate" (the channel connecting the harbour of San
Francisco with the Pacific Ocean) was so called because many of the
seekers of the precious yellow metal passed this way to and from the
rich gold-fields.

In American
cities, men have built huge buildings (skyscrapers) some as many as
fifty flats high. The national capital of the United States is
Washington and the White House is the home of the President. The
famous Statue of Liberty in New York harbour was a gift from France.

While English
is the national language of the country, some immigrants have
continued the manners, customs, and even tongue of their homeland,
and newspapers, in all languages, may be seen in the book-stalls.
Here are some common English words, for which the Americans have
different names: sweets-candies, shop-store, motor-car-automobile,
pavement-sidewalk, petrol-gas, lift-elevator, dust-bin, garbage-can,
holiday-vacation, trousers-pants, waistcoat-vest, a jug-pitcher.
There are also differences in the spelling of certain words:
colour-color, honour-honor, programme-program.

The national
banner of the United States of America, commonly known as "The
Starts and Stripes" or "Old Glory", is a flag bearing
50 stars and 13 stripes. Each star represents a present-day state and
each stripe stands for one of the original colonies. The national
anthem is the "Star Sprangled Banner" and the national
emblems are the eagle and the buffalo. The national sport may be said
to be baseball.

CLIMATE AND
NATURE OF GREAT BRITAIN

CLIMATE

The climate in
Great Britain is generally mild and temperate due to the influence of
the Gulf Stream. The south-western winds carry the warmth and
moisture into Britain. The climate in Britain is usually described as
cool, temperate and humid.

British people
say: "Other countries have a climate, in England we have
weather."

The weather in
Britain changes very quickly. One day may be fine and the next day
may be wet. The morning may be warm and the evening may be cool.
Therefore it is natural for the people to use the comparison "as
changeable as the weather" of a person who often changes his
mood or opinion about something. The weather is the favourite topic
of conversation in Britain. When two Englishmen are introduced to
each other, if they can't think of any thing else to talk about, they
talk about weather. When two people meet in the street they will
often say something about weather as they pass, just to show their
friendliness.

Every daily
paper publishes a weather forecast. Both the radio and television
give the weather forecast several times each day.

The English
also say that they have three variants of weather: when it rains in
the morning, when it rains in the afternoon or when in rains all day
long. Sometimes it rains so heavily that they say "It's raining
cats and dogs".

Rainfall is
more or less even throughout the year. In the mountains there is
heavier rainfall then in the plains of the south and east. The driest
period is from March to June and the wettest months are from October
to January. The average range of temperature (from winter to summer)
is from 15 to 23 degrees above zero. During a normal summer the
temperature sometimes rises above 30 degrees in the south. Winter
temperatures below 10 degrees are rare. It seldom snows heavily in
winter, the frost is rare. January and February are usually the
coldest months, July and August the warmest. Still the wind may bring
winter cold in spring or summer days. Sometimes it brings the
whirlwinds or hurricanes. Droughts are rare.

So, we may say
that the British climate has three main features: it is mild, humid
and changeable. That means that it is never too hot or too cold.
Winters are extremely mild. Snow may come but it melts quickly. In
winter the cold is humid cold, not the dry one.

This humid and
mild climate is good for plants. The trees and flowers begin to
blossom early in spring.

In the British
homes there has been no central heating up till recently. The
fireplaces are often used. but the coal is not used as it's very
expensive. Britain has no good coal now and imports it itself. Many
schools and universities have no central heating either, and the
floors there are made of stone. The British bedroom is especially
cold, sometimes electric blankets or hotwater bottles are used.

LONDON -
THE CAPITAL OF GREAT BRITAIN

When we think
of Paris, Rome. Madrid, Lisbon and other European capitals, we think
of them as "cities'. When we think of the whole of modern
London, the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, that
great area covering several hundred square kilometres, we do not
think of it as 'a city. not even as a city and its suburbs. Modem
London is not one city that has steadily become larger through the
centuries; it is a number of cities. towns, and villages that have,
during the past centuries, grown together to make one vast urban
area.

London is
situated upon both banks of the River Thames, it is the largest city
in Britain and one of the largest in the world. Its population is
about 7 million people.

London
dominates the life of Britain. It is the chief port of the country
and the most important commercial, manufacturing and cultural centre.
There is little heavy industry in London, but there is a wide range
of light industry in Greater London.

London
consists of three parts: the City of London, the West End and the
East End.

The City
extends over an area of about 2.6 square kilometres in the heart of
London. About half a million people work in the City but only less
than 6000 live here. It is the financial centre of the UK with many
banks, offices and Stock Exchange. But the City is also a market for
goods of almost every kind, from all parts of the world.

The West End
can be called the centre of Tendon. Here are the historical palaces
as well as the famous parks. Hyde Park with its Speaker's Corner is
also here. Among other parks are Kensington Gardens, St.James's Park.
In the West End is Buckingham Palace. Which is the Queen's residence,
and the Palace of Westminster which is the seat of Parliament.

The best-known
streets here are Whitehall with important Government offices. Downing
Street, the London residence of Prime Minister and the place where
the Cabinet meets. Fleet Street where most newspapers have their
offices, Harley Street where the highest paid doctors live, and some
others.

Trafalgar
Square is named so in commemoration of Nelson's great victory. In the
middle stands the famous Nelson Column with the statue of Nelson 170
feet high so as to allow him a view of the sea. The column stands in
the geographical centre of the city. It is one of the best open air
platforms for public meetings and demonstrations.

One of the
"musts" for the sightseer are the Houses of Parliament,
facing the Thames, on one side, and Parliament Square and Westminster
Abbey, on the other. The House of Commons sits to the side of the
Clock Tower (Big Ben), the House of Lords - to the Victoria Tower
side.

Westminster
Abbey is the crowning and burial place of British monarchs. It has
its world famed Poet's Corner with memorials to Chaucer, Shakespeare,
Milton, the Bronte's sisters. Tennyson. Longfellow, Wordsworth,
Burns, Dickens, Thackeray, Hardy, Kipling and other leading writers.
Only a few however, are actually buried there.

Here too is
that touching symbol of a nation's grief. The Grave of the Unknown
Warrior.

The name "West
End" came to be associated with wealth, luxury, and goods of
high quality. It is the area of the largest department stores,
cinemas and hotels. There are about 40 theatres, several concert
halls, many museums including the British Museum, and the best art
galleries.

It is in the
West End where the University of London is centred with Bloomsbury as
London's student quarter.

The Port of
London is to the east of the City. Here. today are kilometres and
kilometres of docks, and the great industrial areas that depend upon
shipping. This is the East End of London, unattractive in appearance,
but very important to the country's commerce.

In recent
times London has grown so large. that the Government has decided that
it must spread no farther. It is now surrounded by a "green
belt" - a belt of agricultural and wooded land on which new
buildings may be put up only with the permission of the planning
authorities.

SOME FACTS
ABOUT LONDON

London has
been home of many famous Englishmen. Some were born there. Some lived
there all their lives. Others lived in London only for a short time
but all gave something to this great city

One of the
first names of importance is that of Geoffrey Chaucer, the poet. He
lived most of his life in London. He knew the courts of King Richard
II d King Henry IV. His most famous work, 'The Canterbury Tales",
opens at the Tabard Inn, in Southwark. Chaucer held official posts in
London and is buried in Westminster Abbey.

William
Shakespeare also lived in London. He lived there for more than twenty
years. He acted at the Globe Theatre and wrote his plays in London.
But London's famous men are not only writers. Sir Christopher Wren,
the architect, spent most of his life in London. He designed many
beautiful churches, including St. Paul's Cathedral. He also designed
palaces and fine houses.

Music is
represented by a very interesting figure. This is George Frederick
Handel. He came to London from Hanover in 1710. He lived for a time
at Burlington House, Piccadilly, now the Royal Academy. After some
success and some failure he at last became famous. This happened when
he composed "The Messiah". "Judas Maccabeus". and
'The Music for the Royal Fireworks". Like Chaucer and many other
great artists. Handel is buried in Westminster Abbey.

Another famous
London figure is one of England's greatest seamen. Admiral Lord
Nelson. He has a very special memorial in Trafalgar Square. The
monument consists of a very tall column. On top of it stands a figure
of Nelson. It is called the Nelson Column. Equally famous is the
general who led the army at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. This was
the Duke of Wellington. His house stands at Hyde Park Comer. It is
sometimes known as Number One, London. Like Admiral Nelson, the Duke
of Wellington is buried in St. Paul's Cathedral.

Houses of Parliament

The Palace of Westminster
has two miles of corridors and more than 1000 rooms. When Parliament
is sitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. The House of Lords
looks more splendid with its beautiful red benches than the House of
Commons. There is the throne for the Queen and the woolsack for the
Lord Chancellor there. Visitors can watch the Parliament at work from
the Strangers’ Gallery. The Speaker sits on the green chair.

Parliament Square

Westminster
Abbey is on one side, the Houses of Parliament on the other. The
buildings of the Houses of Parliament is not old, it dates only from
the 19th
century, and is in the Gothic style. When the Parliament has a
sitting a flag flies from the Victoria Tower. It is the national flag
of the United Kingdom. Another tower, the Clock Tower, is famous for
the hour bell and the clock named “Big Ben”. Only a short
way from the Houses of Parliament there is one of the most beautiful
of all English buildings – W.A., founded in the 11th
century. There are many tombstones, monuments and statues there. For
nearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of England – 41 in
all – have been crowned here. If u go past the magnificent
tombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold and precious stones
u will come to the Poets’ Corner. There many of the greatest
writers were buried. Geoffrey Chauser, Samuel Johnson, Charles
Dickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling. Burns and
Byron, Walter Scott and the great American poet Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow. Here in the Abbey there is also the Grave of the Unknown
Warrior that commemorate the men who died on the First World War.

The square has a lot of
statues including Richard the Pion-Hearted, and Oliver Cromvell. It
also has the masterpiece of Sir Henry Mur – the statue of Sir
Winston Churchill.

St.Paul’s Cathedral

The
City’s greatest monument and on of the finest Renaissance
cathedrals in Europe is St.Paul’s Cathedral. The old cathedral
was completely destroyed by the Great Fire of London in 1666. People
put their belongings in the church, thinking it was safe, but the
fire soon reached it. It was so hot it turned the church bells into
molten metal. Christopher When a famous English architect, was
commissioned to rebuild Saint Paul’s. He made several plans
before one was accepted. In the Crypt of the church you can see scale
models of his rejected designs. It took nearly 35 years to build the
Cathedral, being finished in 1710. Running around the interior of the
dome is the famous Whispering Gallery. It is called so because you
can clearly hear the whisper made by someone who is standing on the
opposite side of the gallery. Big Paul, the heaviest bell in the
country, is in the northern bell tower at the front of Saint Paul’s.
It rings every weekday at 1 p.m. to let people know that it is
lunchtime. Another bell Big Tom, tolls when a monarch or important
churchmen die. The church bells in the other tower are rung on
Sundays and to celebrate great occasions

The City

All the principle
streets of London lead to the heart of the City, the financial and
business center of Great Britain. The City is about one square mile
in area and only a few thousand people live there. But by day, many
people swarm its streets and offices. Here there are the Bank of
England, The Stock Exchange and headquarters of many of the richest
companies and corporations in the world. The City’s greatest
monument and on of the finest Renaissance cathedrals in Europe is
St.Paul’s Cathedral. The old cathedral was completely destroyed
by the Great Fire of London in 1666. People put their belongings in
the church, thinking it was safe, but the fire soon reached it. It
was so hot it turned the church bells into molten metal. Christopher
When a famous English architect, was commissioned to rebuild Saint
Paul’s. He made several plans before one was accepted. Running
around the interior of the dome is the famous Whispering Gallery. It
is called so because you can clearly hear the whisper made by someone
who is standing on the opposite side of the gallery.

Tower Bridge is the
only Thames bridge which can be raised. The road over the bridge is
built on two central sections called bascules, which open two or
three times a week to let ships through. There are displays inside
the bridge on its history. (T.S.+W.A.+H.P.)

The Climate of the British Isles

The
position of Great Britain gives it a temperate climate. Britain lies
in the eastern part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is surrounded by the
sea which makes the climate warmer in winter and cooler in summer.
The Gulf Stream influences the English climate greatly. The climate
is not the same in all parts of England. The western part is warmer
than the eastern one and it also has more rains. The western hills
and mountains shut out some of the mild wind from the Atlantic. On
Western coast gales are always strong. The south-western winds are
the most frequent. They usually bring mild weather. There is much
humidity in the air. Britain is well known as a foggy country. The
annual temperature in London is about 8 degrees C.

n during the winter season in the mountainous districts of the
interior. In the western coastal region, which is subject to the
moderating effects of the Gulf Stream, conditions are somewhat milder
than is the east. The average temperature in January is 4 degrees C
and in July is about 15 degrees C. Scotland’s weather is
similar to Wales and England.

Wales
is a part of the United Kingdom. It also includes the mall island off
Wales called Anglesey. Wales is bounded on the North by the Irish
Sea, on the east by the English counties, on the South by the Bristol
Channel, and the west by Saint George. Wales is almost all mountains.
The tops of the mountains are covered with the snow. The climate in
Wales is very moist and mild like in the United Kingdom. The average
temperature in January is about 6 degrees C and in July is about 16
degrees C.

Ireland’s
climate is mainly determined by its position in the north temperate
zone and the effect of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. The
climate is relatively uniform throughout. The prevailing west winds
carry rain from the Atlantic, resulting in heavier rainfall in the
western and southern parts of the country. Summers are relatively
cool, with July and August being the warmest months, whilst winters
are relatively mild with January and February being the coldest
months. Snow falls occasionally in winter months but it is rarely
prolonged and usually only lasts for a few days.

The Royal
Residences

Kensington Palace is a
royal palace in London. Originally a private country house, the
building was acquired by William III and Mary II in 1689 and was
adopted for royal residence by Sir Christopher Wren. Kensington House
as it was known became William and Mary’s principal residence.
For the next 70 years the palace was at the center of the life and
government of the kingdom and played host to the courts of William
and Mary, Queen Anne, George I and George II.

In
the XIX century Kensington was the birthplace and home of Princess
Victoria (later Queen Victoria). By the end of 19th
century, the State Apartments at Kensington Palace were in a very bad
state of repair having been used as stores for paintings and
furnishings from other palaces. In April 1897 a decision was made to
restore the palace and Parliament agreed to fund the work on the
condition that the building should be opened up to the public. Parts
of the palace remains a private residence for members of the royal
family, the State Apartments and Royal Ceremonial Dress Collection
are open to the public.

Buckingham Palace is
the London home of the Queen and Prince Philip. The Palace is also
the administrative headquarters of the monarchy. The Queen receives
visiting heads of state at the palace and it is here that the Queen
holds garden parties and bestowed knighthoods and other honours. Foot
Guards from the Household Division in their distinctive red tunics
and black bearskins, can be seen on guard duty outside the palace
daily. The Changing the Guard ceremony now takes place only every
other day in the winter but it is still daily in the summer months.
After a serious fire damaged Winsdor Castle in 1993 the Queen allowed
the Palace State rooms to be opened to the public for the first time,
to help pay the Winsdor Castle repair bill.

The Tower of London

The Tower of London
doesn’t belong to the City, though it stood there for almost
900 years. It is more connected with the royal dynasties than with
the world of business. It was originally built as a fortress to guard
the river approaches to London. The Tower of London was begun by
William the Conqueror in 1078 as a castle and palace. Since then it
has been expanded, and used as an armoury, a zoo, a royal mint and a
prison, a treasury and an observatory. A group of ravens live at the
Tower. The tradition goes that if they disappear the building will
collapse. For centuries a royal zoo was kept in the grounds. It once
included a polar bear, which fished and swam in the moat. Now it is a
museum and the Beefeaters (Yeoman Warders) guard the Tower. They used
to be the monarch’s private bodyguard. Beefeater was a medieval
nickname for well-fed servants. They wear a Tudor-style uniform of
blue or red. They willingly show visitors the main places of
interest. In some Tower rooms there are inscriptions carved on the
walls by former prisoners. In Salt Tower you can see a complicated
astronomical clock carved by a sixteenth century prisoner accused of
black magic.

Trafalgar Square

Westminster Abbey

W.A
was founded in the 11th
century. It is a fine Gothic building, which stands opposite the
Houses of Parliament. It is the work of many hands and different
ages. The oldest part of the building dates from the eights century.
It was a monastery – the West Minster. In the 11th
century Edward the Confessor founded a great Norman Abbey. One of the
greater glories of the Abbey is the Chapel of Henry VII. The Chapel
is of stone and glass, so wonderfully cut and sculptured that it
seems unreal. There are many tombstones, monuments and statues in the
Abbey. For nearly 1000 years all the Kings and Queens of England –
41 in all – have been crowned here. If u go past the
magnificent tombstones of kings and queens, some made of gold and
precious stones u will come to the Poets’ Corner. There many of
the greatest writers were buried. Geoffrey Chauser, Samuel Johnson,
Charles Dickens, Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Hardy, Rudyard Kipling.
Burns and Byron, Walter Scott and the great American poet Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow. Here in the Abbey there is also the Grave of
the Unknown Warrior that commemorate the men who died on the First
World War.

Moscow (1)

Moscow is the
capital of Russia. The city is located in western Russia and lies in
the broad, shallow valley of the Moskva River, a tributary of the Oka
and thus of the Volga, in the centre of the vast plain of European
Russia. This region is one of the most highly developed and densely
populated areas of Russia.

The climate of
Moscow is of the continental type, modified by the temperate
influence of westerly winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Winters are cold
and long, summers are short and mild . The moderate annual
precipitation occurs predominantly in the summer months, often in
brief, heavy downpours. Only a small percentage of Moscow's
population is employed in the city centre because of the
decentralization of workplaces. Industry is the dominant source of
employment, followed by science and research. Although Moscow's role
in the country's administration is of prime importance, government as
a source of employment is relatively minor. Engineering (production
of automobiles and trucks, ball bearings, machine tools, and
precision instruments) and metalworking are by far the most important
industries. Other important activities include the manufacture of
textiles, chemicals and derivative products, and consumer goods
(foodstuffs, footwear, and pianos); timber processing; construction;
and printing and publishing. Moscow is the headquarters of state
insurance and banking organizations. The pattern of rings and radials
that marked the historical stages of Moscow's growth remains evident
in its modern layout. Successive epochs of development are traced by
the Boulevard Ring and the Garden Ring (both following the line of
former fortifications), the Moscow Little Ring Railway, and the
Moscow Ring Road. From 1960 to the mid-1980s the Ring Road was the
administrative limit of the city, but several areas of the largely
greenbelt zone beyond the road have been annexed since then. The
centre of the city and the historical heart of Moscow is the
fortified enclosure of the Kremlin. Its crenellated redbrick walls
and 20 towers (19 with spires) were built at the end of the 15th
century and were partially rebuilt in later years. Within the walls
of the Kremlin are located the meeting places of the government of
Russia. Among these are the former Senate building (1776-88), the
Kremlin Great Palace (1838-49), and the modern Palace of Congresses
(1960-61). Other features within the Kremlin include the central
Cathedral Square, around which are grouped three cathedrals, all
examples of Russian church architecture at its height in the late
15th and early 16th centuries; a group of palaces of various periods;
the white bell tower of Ivan III the Great; the Armoury Museum; and
the Arsenal (1702-36). Along the east wall of the Kremlin lies Red
Square, the ceremonial centre of the capital. The Lenin Mausoleum
stands beneath the Kremlin walls, and the Church of the Intercession,
or Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed, is at the southern end of the
square. The State Department Store, GUM, faces the Kremlin, and the
State Historical Museum (1875-83) closes off the northern end of the
square. In the remainder of central Moscow, within the Garden Ring,
are buildings representative of every period of Moscow's development
from the 15th century to the present. Examples of the Moscow Baroque
style, the Classical period, and the revivalist Old Russian style may
be found. In the Soviet period streets were widened, and much of the
old part of the inner city was demolished and replaced by large
office and apartment buildings, government ministries, headquarters
of national and international bodies and organizations, hotels and
larger shops, and principal cultural centres. Beyond the Garden Ring
is a middle zone dominated by 18th- and 19th-century developments;
many factories, railway stations, and freight yards are located
there. Since 1960 extensive urban renewal has occurred, producing
neighbourhoods of high-rise apartment buildings. The outer zone has
been the site of modern factory development and extensive housing
construction in the 20th century. Beyond the newer suburbs are areas
of open land and forest, together with satellite industrial towns and
dormitory suburbs. Moscow's inhabitants are overwhelmingly of Russian
nationality, but members of more than 100 other nationalities and
ethnic groups also live there. Population density, though lowered by
outward expansion of the city, has remained high because of the vast
number of large apartment buildings. Moscow has a large concentration
of educational institutions, and its centres of higher education draw
students from throughout Russia. Moscow State University (1755) is
the leading educational institution. The city's many specialized
educational institutions include the Moscow Timiryazev Academy of
Agriculture and the Moscow P.I. Tchaikovsky State Conservatory.
Scientific research is conducted by the Academy of Sciences of Russia
and many institutions linked to industry. The city's libraries
include the V.I. Lenin State Library. Theatre, music, and art are
important in the city's life. The State Academic Bolshoi ("Great")
Theatre (1825), Maly ("Little") Theatre, and Moscow Art
Theatre are especially renowned. Of the many museums and galleries,
the State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the State Tretyakov Gallery
are notable. Few people in Moscow own automobiles, necessitating
heavy reliance on public transportation provided by the Metropolitan
(Metro) subway, buses, streetcars, and trolleybuses. The Metro
system, which reflects the city's street patterns, is known for the
elaborate architecture of its stations. Moscow is the centre of the
country's rail network, on which freight transport is heavily
dependent. Trunk rail lines radiate from the city in all directions
to major Russian population and industrial centres, to Ukraine,
Belarus, and eastern Europe, and to Central Asia. Suburban commuter
traffic is facilitated by the Moscow Little Ring Railway (1908) and
the Greater Moscow Ring Railway, which link radial lines. Passenger
trains connect to destinations throughout Russia and Europe. Moscow
is also a major river port and is served by the Moscow Canal. The
Volga's various canals link Moscow to all the seas surrounding
European Russia. Moscow is the centre of the country's airline
network; the Sheremetyevo airport, in the north, handles
international flights.

Moscow (2)

One of the
world's great cities, Moscow (Russian Moskva) is the capital of
Russia. Since it was first mentioned in chronicles of 1147, Moscow
has played a vital role in Russian history; indeed the history of the
city and of the Russian nation are closely interlinked. Today Moscow
is not only the political centre of Russia but also the country's
leading city in population, in industrial output, and in cultural,
scientific, and educational importance. For more than 600 years
Moscow has been the spiritual centre of the Russian Orthodox Church.

The capital of
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.) until its
dissolution in 1991, Moscow attracted world attention as a centre of
Communist power; the name of the seat of the former Soviet government
and successor Russian government, the Kremlin (Russian Kreml), became
a synonym for Soviet authority. The dissolution of the U.S.S.R.
brought economic and political change, along with a degree of
uncertainty over the future, to the city. Moscow covers an area of
about 386 square miles (1,000 square kilometres), its outer limit
being roughly delineated by the Moscow Ring Road. Most of the area
beyond this highway has been designated as a Forest-Park Zone, or
greenbelt.

Moscow (3)

In March of
1918 Moscow became the capital. The supreme organs of state power and
many central institutions moved to Moscow from Petrograd. It was
extremely difficult in the years of the Civil war to see the image of
a new city in deserted and unheated Moscow.

The rapid
growth of Moscow's population occurred during the twenties and
thirties, in 1931 work began to develop the Master Reconstruction
Plan of Moscow, a plan which many people abroad considered to be vain
dream.

The city grew
and changed, the streets and squares became wider, the wooden houses
at the former outskirts disappeared. But the buildings of cultural
and historical value were carefully preserved.

Today, as
ever, the Kremlin with Red Square is the centre of Moscow. Here
Moscow began more than eight hundred years ago. The city has grown so
vast since, the present and the past are so closely interwoven that
one can not embrace it all at once.

Certain
villages, distant country estates have become the new residential
areas of Moscow. New dwellings rose not only within the established
parts of Moscow but new neighbourhoods took shape in Tyoply Stan,
Orekhovo-Borisovo, Yasenevo.

In the past
century Moscow went through the invasion of Napoleon's army that
forced all Muscovites to leave their city. Moscow was burned down but
was never conquered. Once the enemy was driven away. its inhabitants
set about building Moscow anew.

Nowadays in
erecting new buildings, the Muscovites take care to preserve its
unique monuments. Its architectural ensembles have been formed over
the centuries and each generation added features of its Lime to the
appearance of the city.

The city has
thousands of libraries, schools, kindergartens and nurseries,
hundreds of clubs and cinemas, dozens of higher educational
establishments, theatres, museums and stadiums.

Neither words
nor convincing figures, however, can give a complete idea of what had
been done in Moscow. One has to visit Moscow plants and factories, to
stroll about its streets and squares, to see its new residential
areas.

The Kremlin is
now both a piece of living history and an ensemble of masterpieces of
Russian architecture.

The first
thing that meets the eye is the redbrick walls of the Kremlin,
reinforced by 20 towers, five of which are also gates. The Kremlin's
towers are unique in appearance. Built in 1485, the Tainitsky Tower
is the oldest. The highest of them is the Trinity Tower which is 80
metres tall.

The Bolshoi
Theatre was opened in 1825. The theatre seats 2,150. The company has
more than 900 members.

The
State Tretyakov Gallery. The gallery's works of Russian fine arts
range from unique mosaics and icons of the 11th century to works of
contemporary artists. The gallery is named after great Russian
Connoisseur Pavel Tretyakov who left his collection as a gift to the
nation. It has become one of the most popular places of interest in
Moscow since then.

The Kremlin

The Kremlin is the symbol of first Russian and later
Soviet power and authority. Its crenellated red brick walls and 20
towers were built at the end of the 15th century, when a host of
Italian builders arrived in Moscow at the invitation of Ivan III the
Great. Of the most important towers, the Saviour (Spasskaya) Tower
leading to Red Square was built in 1491 by Pietro Solario, who
designed most of the main towers; its belfry was added in 1624-25.
The chimes of its clock are broadcast by radio as a time signal to
the whole nation. Also on the Red Square front is the St. Nicholas
(Nikolskaya) Tower, built originally in 1491 and rebuilt in 1806. The
two other principal gate towers--the Trinity (Troitskaya) Tower, with
a bridge and outer barbican (the Kutafya Tower), and the Borovitskaya
Tower--lie on the western wall.

Within the Kremlin walls is one of the most
striking and beautiful architectural ensembles in the world: a
combination of churches and palaces, which are open to the public and
are among the city's most popular tourist attractions, and the
highest offices of the state, which are surrounded by strict
security. Around the central Cathedral Square (Sobornaya Ploshchad)
are grouped three magnificent cathedrals, superb examples of Russian
church architecture at its height in the late 15th and early 16th
centuries. These and the other churches in the Kremlin ceased
functioning as places of worship after the Revolution and are now
museums. The white stone Cathedral of the Assumption (Uspensky Sobor)
is the oldest, built in 1475-79 in the Italianate-Byzantine style.
Its pure, simple, and beautifully proportioned lines and elegant
arches are crowned by five golden domes. The Orthodox metropolitans
and patriarchs of the 14th to the 18th century are buried there.
Across the square is the Cathedral of the Annunciation
(Blagoveshchensky Sobor), built in 1484-89 by craftsmen from Pskov;
though burned in 1547, it was rebuilt in 1562-64. Its cluster of
chapels is topped by golden roofs and domes. Inside are a number of
early 15th-century icons attributed to Theophanes the Greek and to
Andrey Rublyov, considered by many to be the greatest of all Russian
icon painters. The third cathedral, the Archangel (Arkhangelsky), was
rebuilt in 1505-08; in it are buried the princes of Moscow and tsars
of Russia (except Boris Godunov) up to the founding of St.
Petersburg. Just off the square stands the splendid, soaring white
bell tower of Ivan the Great; built in the 16th century and damaged
in 1812, it was restored a few years later. At its foot is the
enormous Tsar Bell (Tsar-Kolokol), cast in 1733-35 but never rung.
Nearby is the Tsar Cannon (Tsar-Pushka), cast in 1586. Beside the gun
are located the mid-17th-century Cathedral of the Twelve Apostles
(Sobor Dvenadtsati Apostolov) and the adjoining Patriarchal Palace.
On the west of Cathedral Square is a group of palaces of various
periods; the Palace of Facets (Granovitaya Palata)--so called from
the exterior finish of faceted, white stone squares--was built in
1487-91. Behind it is the Terem Palace of 1635-36, which incorporates
several older churches, including the Resurrection of Lazarus
(Voskreseniye Lazarya), dating from 1393. Both became part of the
Kremlin Great Palace, built as a royal residence in 1838-49 and
formerly used for sessions of the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R.; its
long, yellow-washed facade dominates the riverfront. It is connected
to the Armoury Palace (Oruzheynaya Palata), built in 1844-51 and now
the Armoury Museum, housing a large collection of treasures of the
tsars. Along the northeast wall of the Kremlin are the Arsenal
(1702-36), the former Senate building (1776-88), and the School for
Red Commanders (1932-34). The only other Soviet-period building
within the Kremlin is the Palace of Congresses (1960-61), with a vast
auditorium used for political gatherings and as a theatre.

The British
Press

The British
press consists of several kinds of newspapers.

The national
papers are the ones sold all over the country, with a large
circulation, giving general news.

There are two
main types of national paper - the "popular" papers and the
"quality" papers. The popular papers are smaller in size
(they are tabloid size), with lots of pictures, big headlines and
short articles. They are easy to read and often contain little real
information. They give much space to opinions. They usually have
"human interest" stories - stories about ordinary people
and events. Examples of this type of newspapers are "The Daily
Mail". "The Sun", etc.

"Quality"
papers appeal to the more serious reader, who wants to read about
politics and foreign affairs. These papers such as "The Daily
Telegraph", "The Guardian" are bigger in size (they
are called "broad-sheets"), with longer articles and a
wider coverage of events. They have different pages for home news,
foreign affairs, features articles, fashion, business, sport and so
on.

People in
Britain buy more papers on Sunday than on weekdays. The Sunday papers
have a higher circulation than the dailies. As with the dailies,
there are both popular and quality Sunday newspapers. The quality
ones have different sections and a colour magazine (usually full of
advertisements)

Television

Television is
the most popular leisure pastime in Russia. Several television
channels are in operation: "Ostankino". "Russian
Channel", "Independent TV Channel - NTV". Besides them
there are local TV channels and local commercial TV channels in big
cities and republics of Russia.

TV services
provide programmes of general interest such as light entertainment,
sport, current affairs, serious drama, music. There are programmes on
arts, children's and family programmes, interview with outstanding
personalities, news reports covering international, national and
local events.

Much attention
is paid to foreign films, American in particular, foreign TV
programmes and soap operas.

Television is
one of the most popular mass media in Britain. Some 96 per cent of
population have television in their homes. It is estimated that about
10 per cent of household have two or more sets. Average viewing time
per person is over 17 hours a week.

Four
television channels are in operation: BBC-1. BBC-2. ITV. Channel-4.

The BBC has
been providing regular television broadcasts since 1936. BBC
television productions come from main studios at the Television
Centre in west London and other studios in various parts of London.

The first
regular independent television broadcast began in London in 1955.
Independent television programmes are produced at 18 studio centres
throughout the country.

THE OLYMPIC
GAMES

The Olympic
Games are one of the most spectacular reminders of the debt we owe to
the Greeks.

The original
Olympic Games were held every four years in honour of Zeus, the
supreme god of Greek religion. The first record of the games dates
from 776 B.C., but it is certain that they existed prior to that.
They were held continuously for over 1.000 years until they were
abolished in the reign of King Theodosius about 392 A.D. The Olympic
festival was a great unifying bond between the Independent
city-states of Greece.

The important
sports in the original Olympic Games were running, jumping,
wrestling, throwing the discus and throwing the javelin. Only men
competed and they wore no clothes in order to have greater freedom of
movement. Each competitor had to take the Olympic Oath - a promise to
behave in a sportsman-like fashion.

The modern
Olympic era began in 1894 when Frenchman Baron Pierre de Coubertin
decided to revive the ancient Greek tradition of celebrating health,
youth and peace with a sports festival. Baron de Coubertin created
the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the first modem
Olympiad took place in Athens in 1896. Since then the Olympic Games
have been held every four years with only two exceptions because of
the two world wars.

Even though
the modern Olympic Games embrace the whole world, the connection with
Greece is still very strong. A lighted torch is brought all the way
from Greece, carried by a relay of runners, in order to light the
Olympic Flame which bums all through the Games. As in ancient Greek
times, the competitors still take the Olympic Oath. The long-distance
race is still called the Marathon. Marathon was a village about 26
miles from Athens. In the year 490 BC the Greeks defeated a powerful
Persian army at that spot. After the fierce day's fighting a soldier
volunteered to bring news of the victory to the anxious citizens of
Athens. He ran all the way and after gasping out the message.
"Rejoice, we conquer!" he collapsed and died.

One important
rule of the Olympic Games is that the competitors must be amateurs.
This rule has been under a lot of pressure in recent years because
modem sport is so professional and competitive. Athletes train for
years to take part in the Olympics and some countries spend much more
than others on equipment and facilities. But despite these pressures,
the amateur rule remains.

In modern
times the Olympic movement has become an enormous and expensive
organisation, It's controlled by the International Olympic Committee,
which consists of members from all the participating countries. The
IOC is based in Lausanne, Switzerland. It chooses the locations of
both summer and winter games (both take place once very four years,
with winter games half a year before summer Olympiads). It also
controls the rules of the competitions and selects new Olympic
sports. The famous flag of the IOC shows five rings of different
colours linked together. The rings represent the five continents.

NATIONAL
SPORTS OF GREAT BRITAIN

Many kinds of
sport originated from England. The English have a proverb, "All
work and no play makes Jack a dull boy". They do not think that
play is more important than work; they think that Jack will do his
work better if he plays as well. so he is encouraged to do both.
Association football, or soccer is one of the most popular games in
the British Isles played from late August until the beginning of May.
In summer the English national sport is cricket. When the English
say: "that's not cricket" it means "that's not fair",
"to play the game" means "to be fair".

Golf is
Scotland's chief contribution to British sport. It is worth noting
here an interesting feature of sporting life in Britain, namely, its
frequently close connections with social class of the players or
spectators except where a game may be said to be a "national"
sport. This is the case with cricket in England which is played and
watched by all classes. This is true of golf, which is everywhere in
the British Isles a middle-class activity. Rugby Union. the amateur
variety of Rugby football, is the Welsh national sport played by all
sections of society whereas, elsewhere, it too is a game for the
middle classes. Association football is a working-class sport as are
boxing, wrestling, snooker, darts, and dog-racing. As far as fishing
is concerned it is a sport where what is caught determines the class
of a fisherman.

Walking and
swimming are the two most popular sporting activities, being almost
equally undertaken by men and women. Snooker (billiards), pool and
darts are the next most popular sports among men. Aerobics (keep-fit
exercises) and yoga. squash and cycling are among the sports where
participation has been increasing in recent years.

There are
several places in Britain associated with a particular kind of sport.
One of them is Wimbledon where the All-England Lawn Tennis
Championship are held in July (since 1877). The other one is Wembly -
a stadium in north London where international football matches, the
Cup Finals and other events have taken place since 1923.

TABLE
TENNIS

Table tennis
was first Invented in England in about 1880. At first the game had
several strange names: Gossima. Whiff Whaff and Ping Pong. It wasn't
until 1926 that the International Table Tennis Association was formed
with international championships and rules.

Although the
game was invented in England British players don't have much chance
in international championships. It's the Chinese with their fantastic
speed and power who win almost every title. Table tennis looks more
like gymnastics when the Chinese start playing, with the ball flying
over the net at speeds of over 150 kilometres per hour.

RACING

There are all
kinds of racing in England - horse-racing, motor-car racing,
boat-racing, dog-racing, and even races for donkeys. On sports days
at school boys and girls run races, and even train for them. There is
usually a mile race for older boys, and one who wins it is certainly
a good runner.

Usually those
who run a race go as fast as possible, but there are some races in
which everybody has to go very carefully in order to avoid falling.

The most
famous boat-race in England is between Oxford and Cambridge. It is
rowed over a course on the River Thames, and thousands of people go
to watch it. The eight rowers in each boat have great struggle, and
at the end there is usually only a short distance between the winners
and the losers.

The University
boat-race started in 1820 and has been rowed on the Thames almost
every spring since 1836.

SQUASH

Squash began
at Harrow School in the mid-nineteenth century, but has since worked
its way Into almost every city and district in Britain and throughout
Europe.

Squash is one
of the fastest games in the world. Two people play in a small
confined space surrounded by high walls with no net to keep them
apart. The aim is to get to the point at the centre of the court and
to stay there.

Squash players
hope that the game will make them stronger and fitter, but. like many
sports, squash can be very dangerous. The most obvious danger is the
small ball that shoots through the air extremely fast.

WINDSURFING

Windsurfing
was invented in the mid-sixties by two southern Californian surfers,
Hoyle Schweitzer and Jim Drake. Surfers need strong rolling waves,
and hate days of calm sea. Schweitzer noticed that on days when waves
were not high enough to surf, there was often a strong wind and he
set about finding a way to use it.

His first
experiments Involved standing on his surfboard holding out a piece of
sail cloth in his hands. Gradually he and Drake refined this idea
into a basic design for a sailboard, similar to a surfboard, but
holding a mast and a triangular sail which could be tilted and turned
in any direction. The windsurfer operates a boom which controls the
amount of wind in the sail, for speed and change of direction.
Schweitzer immediately went into business designing and making the
new sailboards and taking the idea abroad. By mid-seventies, the
sport had spread to Holland, Germany and France.

OLYMPIC
GAMES IN LONDON

London was
host for the first time in 1908. With 1,500 competitors from 19
nations, the Games were by now an institution of world-wide
significance. The programme, moreover, was augmented by the inclusion
of Association football (which appeared in 1900 but only in a
demonstration match), diving, field hockey, and ice hockey, as well
as other sports since discontinued.

The most
dramatic episode of these Games was in the marathon, run from Windsor
to Shepherd's Bush in London, the site of a new stadium. Pietri
(Italy) led into the arena but collapsed and was disqualified for
accepting assistance from officials. The gold medal went to the
second man home, Hayes (USA), but Queen Alexandra, who was present
opposite the finishing line, was so moved by the Italian's plight
that she awarded him special gold cup. The 400 metres provided an
opportunity for Halswelle (GB) to become the only man in Olympic
history to win by a walk-over. The final was declared void after an
American had been disqualified for boring. Two other Americans
withdrew from re-run final in protest, leaving Halswelle an unopposed
passage. Britain won the polo, and all the boxing, lawn tennis,
rackets, rowing, and yachting titles as well as five out of six cycle
races.

CHRISTMAS

The word
"Christmas" is derived from the words "Christ's Mass"
- the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ. But although
Christmas is undoubtedly a Christian celebration, it is also true to
say that it is an unusual combination of pagan and Christian
festivities.

A Christmas
tree stands in everybody's living room at Christmas, shining its good
cheer around the room. Sitting on the very top of the tree is a
silver star surrounded by tiny lights. All the branches are hung with
silver bells, tinsel and sparkling lights. Around the base of the
tree lie the gifts and toys wrapped up in bright colourful paper.

The Christmas
tree has spread its influence around the world. In fact America
adopted it before it found its way to England early in Queen
Victoria's reign. Now every Christmas British people are sent a huge
fir tree from Norway which stands in Trafalgar Square, in the centre
of London, shining down on all the people who gather on Christmas
Eve.

In
pre-Christian times evergreens, trees that remain green throughout
the year. were worshiped in Northern Europe as symbols of eternal
life. Mistletoe, hung up as a Christmas decoration is a symbol of
love and reconciliation.

Holly, a
well-known Christmas decoration today, has Christian associations. In
Norwegian, Swedish and Danish, holly is known as "Christ's
thorns", the legend being that Christ wore a crown of holly
thorns before his death. Some people have seen associations between
the word "holly" and "holy".

Giving
presents goes back to Roman Saturnalia when good luck gifts of fruit,
pastry or gold were given to friends on New Year's Day. In Britain
the traditional day to give presents until relatively recently was
December 26th and not as it is today, Christmas Day. December 26th is
now known as Boxing Day, for it was then that the priests of the
Middle Ages opened alms boxes to give to the poor.

Not all
Christian customs and traditions are of ancient origin. Although
various people have claimed to have designed the first Christmas
card. William Egley, an English artist, seems to have the best claim.
In 1842 he designed his own card and sent it to one hundred of his
friends. Today three billion are sent annually in the United States
alone.

HAPPY NEW
YEAR

At
midnight on 31st December bells will ring out around the world to
welcome the New Year. Although certain countries and religions
calculate time by other calendars most countries in the world now
number their years according to the Gregorian calendar introduced in
the 16th century by Pope Gregory XIII. This calendar was intended to
overcome the confusion caused by calculating time according to the
moon's phases.

Bell ringing
is one way of celebrating the arrival of a new year which is common
to all countries welcoming it at this time; but it is the differences
in their celebrations and customs which are intriguing.

In Europe
traditions vary considerably, but most of them involve a meal or
special food. Swiss housewives bake special bread, rich in butter,
eggs and raisins. They also cook roast goose. Children go from house
to house greeting the occupants and receiving invitations to come
inside. People in Italy hold all-night parties, where salt pork
lentils are included on the menu. Lentils are supposed to be lucky
and bring money - perhaps because they look like small piles of gold
coins. There is a practical reason for meals featuring in these new
year festivities. Most people stay up all night, or at least until
midnight to "see the New Year in", so sustenance is
essential. Also there is common superstition that if the new year
begins well it will continue like that.

So great
efforts are made to provide an atmosphere of goodwill and plenty.
Parties are arranged a drink flow freely. In Spain it is a custom to
eat , ^ grapes at midnight and toast the new year in champagne. at
family gatherings. Groups of friends visit restaurants in Turkey
intending to spend the night in celebrations which include present
giving. So a people in Greece play cards, hoping that a win will
bring them luck for a whole year.

NEW YEAR'S
DAY IN ENGLAND

The
celebration of New Year's day varies according to the district. In
the south of England, the festival of Christmas, lasting 12 days from
December 25th, runs on well into the New Year. The decorations of
coloured streamers and holly, put up round the walls, and of course
the fir-tree, with its candles or lights, are not packed away until
January 5th.
On the evening of December 31st, people gather in one another's
homes, in clubs, in pubs, in restaurants, and hotels, in dance halls
and institutes, to "see the New Year in". There is usually
a supper of some kind, and a cabaret, or light entertainment. The
bells chime at midnight. The people join crossed hands, and sing
"Auld lang syne", a song of remembrance.

On New Year's
day all English schoolchildren make New Year resolutions. They make
up lists of shortcomings which they intend to correct. The chil'
dren. their mothers and fathers, and their friends laugh and have a
good time when they read them The children promise to keep them.

In the north,
and in Scotland, particularly, the Year known as Hogmanay, is very
well kept up. The ceremonies are similar, but they have an added
called "first foot". This means opening your door to anyone
who knocks it after midnight, and who will then enter the house,
carrying a piece of coal or wood, or bread. The visitor is
entertained with cakes and ale.

At the Jolly
parties on New Year's eve and also on Burn's night, when they
commemorate their national poet (Jan. 25th), the Scottish people
enjoy eating their famous Haggis. This is a pudding, made from the
heart, liver and lungs of sheep or calf, minced suet, onions, oatmeal
and seasoning, and cooked in the animal's stomach. It is brought into
the banqueting-hall or dining room to the accompaniment of the
bagpipes. Considerable quantities of good Scotch whiskey are consumed
during these celebrations.

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