MINISTRY OF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION
OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
GULISTAN STATE UNIVERSITY
The English and Literature Department
Qualification work on speciality English philology
on the theme:
“Comparative Analysis of the Compound Words”
Supervisor: ___________
Gulistan 2008
I. Introduction
1.1 Theme actuality
After the Independence was proclaimed the Republic was faced with the necessity of creating new legislation corresponding with new realities, with the conditions of Independence and the Parliament coped with this task, there have been adopted new Laws and new Resolutions
For the first time in the history of our country, there adopted “The Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan on Education” and “The Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan on the National Programme of Personnel Training System”. The main objective of all reforms in the field of economic policy is the individual. Therefore the task of education, the task of rising up a new generation capable of national renaissance will remain the prerogative of the state and constitute a priority. At present great importance is attached to the study and teaching of foreign language. In our recent past, in most cases the Russian language but not the mother tongue served as mediator in the study of foreign languages. That is why in particular until the present, English-Uzbek and Uzbek-English Dictionaries had not been available.
That’s why it is necessary to learn and compare English, German and Uzbek lexicology, grammar and phonetics.
2.
The main goal of the work
is to study, compare and analyze the compound words of Uzbek, English and German, to classify the compounds according to morphological and lexical point of view.
3.
The scientific decision of set aims and purposes
will maintain the easiest way for better learning and understanding Uzbek, English and German.
4.
The scientific novelty of the work
. As we know, there aren’t enough manuals which compared the Uzbek and the English languages. The novelty of the work is that in the work one can find new approaches of comparing and classifying the compounds.
5
. The practical value
Work can be useful for all who interested in English. At the university information which taken from the work can be used as a ready – materials at the lectures of Lexicology, Stylistics, Comparative Typology.
6. Literature overview
Basic information of the qualification work is given from the manuals, articles, researches of great scholars such as: by I.V. Arnold A Course in modern English Lexicology by R.S. Ginzburg, The English Word and others. The information which is taken from Internet sites, World Book Encyclopedia and many other dictionaries also served as a source of information.
7. The structure of the work
Work consists of Introduction, Main part, Conclusion and the list of used literatures.
Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms. In a compound word the immediate constituents obtain integrity and structural cohesion that make them function in a sentence as a separate lexical unit.
The structural cohesion and integrity of a compound may depend upon unity of stress, solid or hyphenated spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and syntactic functioning or, more often, upon the combined effect of several of these or similar phonetic, graphic, semantic, morphological or syntactic factors.
The integrity of a compound is manifested in its indivisibility, i.e. the impossibility of inserting another word or word group between its elements. If, for example, speaking about a “sunbeam” (English) кўкйўтал we can insert some other word between the article and the article and the noun, e.g. a bright sunbeam, a bright and unexpected sunbeam, because the article a is a separate word, no such insertion is possible between the stems sun & beam қора & кўл, for they are not words but morphemes.
In describing the structure of a compound one should examine three types of relations, namely the relation of the members to each other the relation of the whole to its members, and correlation with equivalent free phrases.
Some compounds are made up ofa determining and a determined part, which may be called the determinant and me determinate group. Thus, a blackboard, томорқа is very different from a blackboard, том орқа (сида). Its essential feature is being a teaching aid → ховли атрофида экин экиладиган Майдон →: not every board of a black color is a blackboard.
A blackboard may be not a board at all but a piece of linoleum or some other suitable material. Its color is not necessarily black: it may be brown or something else. Thus, blackboard → a board which is black. A chatterbox – оташқалб is not a box, it is a person who talks a great deal without saying anything important: the combination is used only figuratively. The same metaphorical character is observed in the compound slowcoach хомсемиз. It is also idiomatic as it does not name a vehicle but a person who acts and thinks slowly. A fuss – pot is a person easily excited and nervous about trifles. Thus for the original motivation of the idiomatic compound could be easily recreated. The following examples illustrate idiomatic compounds where it is not so obvious: “blackleg”, “strike breaker”, “blackmail” getting money or some other profit from a person by threats bluestocking “a woman affecting literary tastes and learning”
The analysis of the semantic relationship existing between the constituents of a compound presents many difficulties. Some authors have attempted a purely logical interpretation distinguishing copulative, existential, spatial and other connections. This scheme, however, failed to show the linguistic essence of compounds and was cumbersome and artificial.
A mistake common with many authors is treating semantic connections within compounds in terms of syntactic relations. Marchand, For instance, when analyzing the type house – keeping, backbiting, housewarming, book – keeping, sightseeing, etc. Writes: “In most cases the first word is the object. A subject/predicate relation underlies earth quaking, cock – crowing, cock – fighting, sun burning …. The first word is the predicate compliment in well – being and short – coming.”
N. G. Guterman very convincingly showed that such syntactic treatment should be avoided because syntactic ties are ties between words, whereas in dealing with compounds one studies relations within a word, the relations between the morphemes, its significant constituents. These two series of relations belong to different levels of abstraction and should not be mixed. In the compound spacecraft space – is not an attribute to – craft. It cannot possess syntactic functions, being not a word but a stem, So it is more convenient to consider it a determinant restricting the meaning of the determinate by expressing the purpose for which – craft – is designed or the medium in which it will travel. Surely, one could combine these two points of view using a more careful. Wording, and formulate it as follows: phrases correlated with compounds by means of transformational analysis may show objective, subject/predicate, attributive and adverbial relations. E.g. house – keeping: to keep house, well – being: to be well. In the majority of cases compounds manifest some restrictive relationship between the constituents; types of restrictions show great variety.
Some examples of determinative compound nouns with restrictive qualitative relations are given below.
The list is not meant to be exhaustive and serves only to illustrate the manifold possibilities.
Purpose of functional relations underlies such compounds as bathrobe, raincoat, ёмғирпўш, classroom – синфхона, notice – board, and suitcase.
Different place or local relations are expressed in dockland, garden – party, sea – front. Comparison is the basis of blockhead, butter – fingers, floodlight, and goldfish. The material or elements the thing is made of is pointed out silver wear, tin – hat, clay – pipe. Temporal relations underlie such compounds as night – club, night – duty, summer – house and day – train. Sex – denoting compounds are rather numerous: she – dog, he – goat.
II. Main part
Chapter I
2.1.1 Specific features of English, Uzbek and German Compounds
A compound is a word composed of more than one free morpheme. English compounds may be classified in several ways, such as the word classes
or the semantic relationship of their components.
Examples by word class
| Modifier | Head | Compound |
| noun | noun | wall paper |
| adjective | noun | black board |
| verb | noun | break water |
| preposition | noun | under world |
| noun | adjective | snow white |
| adjective | adjective | blue – green |
| verb | adjective | tumbledown |
| preposition | adjective | over – ripe |
| noun | verb | browbeat |
| adjective | verb | highlight |
| verb | verb | freeze – dry |
| preposition | verb | undercut |
| noun | preposition | love – in |
| adjective | preposition | forth with |
| verb | preposition | take out |
| preposition | preposition | without |
1) Since Uzbek is a mostly analytic language, unlike most other Germanic languages, it creates compounds by concatenating words without case markers. As in other Germanic languages, the compounds may be arbitrarily long. However, this is obscured by the fact that the written representation of long compounds always contains blanks.
For example in German there are a lot of long compounds with more than three words: die Bewußtseinserziehung
- воспитаниесознательность
achtzehnhundertzwölf – 1812
On the contrary Uzbek compounds are short compounds.
Ex: кўзойнак, атиргул, бўтакўз, тоққайчи.
The way of forming Uzbek and English short compounds are the same, while German is not included to this group. There are three ways of forming short compounds
1. The solid
or closed
form in which two usually moderately short words appear together as one. Solid compounds most likely consists of short (monosyllabic) units that often have been established in the language for a long time. Examples are; housewife, lawsuit, and wallpaper.
Uzbekexamplesare: сувилон, тоғолча, гултувак.
This rule is also relevant to German compounds.
These are examples: Kraftwerk, die Kinderbibliothek.
2. The hyphenated
form in which two or more words are connected by a hyphen
. Compounds that contain affixes
, such as house – builder and single – mind (ed) (ness) but if these words are written in Uzbek they will be written without hyphen: single – mindedness – ҳурфикрлилик.
As well as adjective - adjective compounds and verb – verb compounds, such as blue – green and freeze – dry, are often hyphenated. Some Uzbek verb – verb compounds are also hyphenated: сотиб - олди, бориб - келди.
But in German there is no hyphenated compound.
In addition to it there are some verb – verb compounds in German: kennenlernen, bleibenstehe.
Compounds that contain particles, such as mother – of – pearl and salt – and – pepper, mother – in – law, merry – go – round, are also hyphenated. But in German such kinds of particles are written together: Vergissmichnicht – forget – me – not – не забудка.
3. The open or spaced form consisting of newer combinations of usually longer, such as: distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis.
In Uzbek there are also such kind of open compounds: стол тенниси, масофавий ўқитиш.
But German is far from this rule: All German compounds words are written together.
A compound word possesses a single semantic structure. The meaning of the compound is first of all derived from the combined lexical meanings of its components, which as a rule; retain their lexical meanings, although their semantic range becomes considerably narrowed. The lexical meanings of thecomponents are closely fused together to create a new semantic unit with a new meaning that is not merely additive but dominates the individual meanings of the components. The semantic centre of the compound is found in the lexical meaning of the second component which is modified and restricted by the lexical meaning of the first, e.g. hand-bag
is essentially 'a bag
carried in the hand for money, papers, face-powder, etc.'; pencil-case
is 'a case for pencils', etc.
The components are often stems of polysemantic words but there is no difficulty, as a rule, of defining which of the' multiple denotational meanings the stem retains in one or another compound word. Compound words with a common second component can serve as an illustration. Let us take words with a common second component, e.g.
board-.
Board
- is the stem of a polysemantic word but it retains only one of its multiple denotational meanings in each compound word: in chess-board
it retains the denotational meaning of ’a wooden slab', in pasteboard
, cardboard
it can be traced to the meaning of 'thick, stiff paper’
, in overboard
to 'a ship's side', in notice-board
, foot-board
, key-board
to 'a flat piece of wood square or oblong'; in school-board
to 'an authorized body of men1
, in side-board
, above-board
to the meaning of 'table'. The same can be observed in words with a common first component, e.g. foot
-, in foot-high
, foot-wide
the stem foot
- retains the lexical meaning of 'measure'; in foot-print
, foot-pump
, foot-hold
—'the terminal part of the leg'; in foot-path
, foot-race
the meaning of 'the way of motion'; in foot-note
, foot
-lights,
foot-stone
—the meaning of 'the lower part, base’
. It is obvious from these examples that the meanings of the sterns of compound words are interdependent and in each case the stems retain only one lexical meaning and that the choice of the particular lexical meaning of each component is delimited, as in free word-groups, by the nature of the other member of the word.1
Thus we may say that the combination of stems serves as a kind of minimal context distinguishing the particular individual lexical meaning of each component.
Both components, besides their denotational and co notational meanings possess distributional and differential types of meaning typical of morphemes2
the differential meaning, found in both components especially comes to the fore in a group of compound words containing identical stems. In compound nouns eye-tooth
—'a canine tooth of the upper jaw’, eye-lash
—'the fringe of hair that edges the eyelid', eye-witness
—'one who can bear witness from his own observation', eye-glasses
—'a pair of lens used to assist defective sight', eye-sore
—'an ugly or unpleasant thing to see', eye-strain
—'weariness of the eye', etc, it is the differential meaning of the second components—tooth-,
glasses-,
witness-,
etc. that brings forth -the different lexical meanings of the stem . eye
- and serves as a distinguishing clue between these words. We observe a similar significance of the differential meaning for the choice of the lexical meaning of the other component in words with the identical second component. In compound words, e.g. wedding-ring, nose-ring, ear-ring, finger-ring, key-ring, circus-ring, prize-ring
, etc., it is not only the denotational but mostly the differential meaning of nose-, ear-, finger
-, etc. that distinguishes wedding-ring
—'a ring worn constantly as a distinctive mark of a married woman' from ear-ring
—'an ornament worn in the lobe of ear', key-ring
— 'a ring for keeping keys on', circus-ring
—'an arena in a circus' and prize-ring
—'an enclosed area for fighting'.
Structural Meaning of the Pattern.
The lexical meanings of the components alone, important as they are, do not make the meaning of the compound word. The meaning of the compound is derived not only from the combined lexical meanings of its components, but also from the meaning signaled by the pattern of the order and arrangement of the stems.
A mere change in the order of stems with the same lexical meanings brings about a radical change in the lexical meaning of the compound word. For illustration let us compare lifeboat—
'a boat of special construction for saving lives front wrecks or along the coast' with boat-fife—
'life on board the ship', a
fruit-market
—
'market where fruit is sold' with market-fruit—
'fruit designed for selling', etc. Thus the structural pattern or the distributional formula in compound words carries a certain meaning which is independent of the actual lexical meanings of their components. In other words the lexical meaning of a compound is derived from the combined lexical meanings of its components and the structural meaning of the distributional formula.
The structural meaning of the distributional formulas of compounds may be abstracted and described through the interrelation of their components. In analyzing compound adjectives, e.g. duty-bound, wind-driven, tear-stained,
we observe that the distributional formula they are built after, i.e. n+ved, conveys the generalized meaning of instrumental or agentive relations between the components which can be interpreted as 'done by' or 'with the help of something'; the denotational meanings of the stems supply the action itself and the actual doer of the action or objects with the help of which the action is done. Thus, duty-bound
may be interpreted as 'bound by duty', wind-driven as 'driven by wind', smoke-filled
as 'filled with smoke'. In this case the distributional formula is monosemantic, hence compound adjectives of this type would also be monosemantic and their lexical meanings would be derived from the structural meaning of the distributional formula and the combined meanings of the stems.
The distributional formula in compounds, however, is not always monosemantic; if we take compound adjectives like, e.g., age-long,
world-wide, oil-rich, pleasure-tired,
etc. built after n+a
formula, we shall see that the generalized meaning of the structure itself may be interpreted in two ways: (a) through relations of comparison between the components as in world-wide—
'wide as the world', snow-white, knee-high,
etc. and (b) through various relations of adverbial type as in oil-rich
that can be interpreted as 'rich in oil', pleasure-tired—
'tired of pleasure', colour-blind—
'blind to colors’, etc. Compound nouns, consisting of two simple noun-stems (n+n)
are most polysemantic in structure. The polisemy of the structure often leads to a certain freedom of interpretation of the semantic relations between the components. For example, it is equally correct to interpret the compound noun toy-man as 'a toy in the shape of a man' or 'a man who makes toys, a toy-maker'. The compound noun clock-tower
may likewise be understood as 'a tower with a clock fitted in’
or 'a tower that serves as a clock'. Other examples to illustrate the polisemy of the distributional formula and the variety of semantic relations that can be read into the same structure1
are pontoon-bridge
which may be interpreted as 'a bridge supported by pontoons, a bridge made of pontoons, pontoons in the form of a bridge, bridge for pontoons'. Witch doctor
may mean 'a doctor who is a witch', 'a person whose business it is to detect or smell out witches, a doctor who witches'. The illustrations may be easily multiplied, but the given examples are sufficient proof that the polisemy of compound words is the result of the polisemy of the structure and not the polysemantic character of individual components.
Chapter II
2.2.1 The Criteria of Compounds
What is the criterion of a compound? Many scholars have claimed that a compound is determined by the underlying concept, others have advocated stress, and some even seek the solution of the problem in spelling. H. Koziol holds that the criterion of a compound is a psychological unity of combination, adding that there “seems to be” a difference of intonation between a compound and a syntactic group which it is, however, difficult to describe.
Stress also has been advocated as a criterion. “Wherever we hear lesser or least stress upon a word which would always show high stress in a phrase, we describe it as a compound member ice – cream ‘ajs – krijm is a compound, but ice cream is a phrase, although there is no denotative difference of meaning. Uzbek “ошқозон” is a compound (the organ of body) but “ош қозон”is a phrase which means “a pot for making a plov”. In German “hellgrün” is a compound which means “light - green”, but “hell grün” is a phrase with the meaning “light green” (ёруғлик яшил).
For a combination to be a compound there is one condition to be fulfilled: the compound must be morphologically isolated from a parallel syntactic group. Blackbird has the morpho – phonemic stress pattern of a compound, black market money by a post – office. These two stress patterns are the commonest among compound words and in many cases they acquire a contrasting force distinguishing compound words from word groups, especially when the arrangement and order of stems parallel the word – order and the distributional formula of the phrase, thus a ‘green – house’ – "a glass – house for cultivating tender plants" is contrasted to a 'green 'house – "a house that is painted green", 'dancing – girl – "a dancer" to 'dancing 'girl – "a girl who is dancing", 'missing – lists – "lists of men and officers who are missing after a battle" to 'missing 'lists – "lists that are missing", 'mad – doctor – "a psychiatrist" to 'mad 'doctor – "a doctor who is mad".
3) It is not in frequent, however, for both components to have level stress as in, e.g. 'arm – 'chair, 'icy – 'cold, 'grass – 'green.
All substantial compounds show this pattern, with the exception of those first element is the pronouns all or self. such compounds have double stress (e.g. 'all 'soul, 'all – 'creator, 'self – 'respect, 'self – 'seeker) of adjectival compounds only two types have the stable stress pattern heave stress / middle stress: the type color – blind and heart – breaking.
All other adjectival types are basically double – stressed.
2.2.2 Inseparability of Compound Words
Structurally
the inseparability of compounds manifests itself in the specific order and arrangement of stems which stand out most clearly in all asyntactic compounds. It is of interest to note that the difference between words and stems even when they coincide morphemically is especially evident in compound adjectives proper. Adjectives like long, wide, rich
are characterized by grammatical forms of degrees of comparison longer, wider, richer
. The corresponding stems lack grammatical independence and forms proper to the words and retain only the part – of – speech meaning, thus compound adjectives with adjective stems for their second components, e.g. age-long, oil-rich
, do not form degrees of comparison the way words long, rich
do. They conform to the general rule of polysyllabic adjectives having analytical forms of degrees of comparison. This difference between words and stems is not so noticeable in compound nouns with the noun stem for the second component, as the paradigm of the compound word coincides with the paradigm of the noun whose stem constitutes its structural centre.
Graphically
most compounds have two types of spelling they are spelt either solidly or with a hyphen. Both types of spelling when accompanied by structural or phonetic peculiarities serve as a sufficient indication of inseparability of compound words in contradistinction to phrases. It is true that hyphenated spelling when not accompanied by some other indications of inseparability may be sometimes misleading, as it may be used in word-groups to underline the phraseological character of combination as in, e.g. daughter-in-law, father-in-law, man-of-war, brother-in-arms
, etc. which are neither structurally, nor phonetically marked by inseparability.
The two types of spelling typical of compounds, however, are not rigidly observed and there are numerous fluctuations between solid or hyphenated spelling on the one hand and spelling with a space between the components on the other, especially in nominal compounds built on the n+n
formula. The spelling of these compounds varies from author to and author from dictionary to dictionary. For example, words—war-path
, war-time
, money-lender
—are spelt both with a hyphen or solidly; blood-poisoning
, money-order
, wave - length
, blood-vessel
, war-ship
—with a hyphen end with a break;1
underfoot,
insofar
, underhand
—solidly and with a break. This inconsistency of spelling in compounds, very often accompanied by a level stress pattern (equally typical of word groups) makes the outer indications of inseparability stand out less clearly and gives rise to the problem of distinguishing between compound words and word-groups.
The numerous borderline cases between compounds and word-groups are connected with one of the most controversial problems in word-composition, known in linguistic literature as "the stonewall problem", in other words the problem whether complexes like stone wall
, peace
movement
, summer days
regularly spelt with a break should he regarded as compound words or word-groups. The solution of the problem centers on the nature of the first member of such formations. There are two approaches to this problem and linguists, consequently, give different appraisals of the graphic and phonetic integrity of such complexes.
Some linguists class such complexes as a specific group of compound words on the ground that the connection between the members of such complexes cannot be regarded as syntactic, as the usual means of connection between two nouns typical of Modern English syntax is either the possessive cafe or various prepositions:" They consequently conclude that the connection in formation of the "stone wall" type is asyntactic hence the members of these complexes are not words but grammatically unshaped elements, i.e. stems. As a junction of two noun-stems they are referred to compound words. The asyntactic structure is taken for a sufficient proof of their inseparability and lack of graphic integrity is disregarded. The proponents of this point of view go on to stale that these complexes may also be interpreted as combinations of an adjective with a noun, the adjective being formed from the noun-stem by means of conversion for the given occasion, in which case a compound word would remain primary and a word-group secondary. This brings the linguists to the conclusion that these complexes make a specific group of compound words, often termed neutral.1
they are characterized by structural instability due to which they can be easily disintegrated into free word-groups under the influence of parallel attributive combinations, level stress and spelling with a break between the components.
The above-cited treatment of these nominal complexes and the disregard of the outer, formal manifestations of inseparability is open to grave doubts. On the one hand, the productivity of conversion in formation of adjectives does not seem convincing because there are very few adjectives' of the type in independent use in Modern English; on the other hand it is argued that Modern English nouns in the Common case, singular are used in the attributive function and a purely syntactic nature of the combination of two;
full-fledged nouns has been almost universally recognized in the last few decades. If we share the opinion, we shall come-to the obvious conclusion that there exists a nominal type of free phrases built on the formula N+N and a group of nominal compounds built on the n+n
formula which stands in correlative relations to each other. The recognition of nominal free phrases deprives "neutral compounds" of theoretical validity. Nominal compounds remain a specific class of compounds but in this case the distributional formula even in the most indisputable cases has only a weakened distinguishing force and can by no means be taken for an overall criterion of their inseparability. It is evident that the hyphenated spelling or at least fluctuations between hyphenated spelling and spelling with a break become most significant in distinguishing nominal compound words from word-groups. Consequently nominal complexes which are regularly spelt with a space between the components and are characterized by level stress pattern can hardly be regarded as
inseparable vocabulary units. It is noteworthy that occasional compounds of this type which have become-registered vocabulary units tend to solid or hyphenated spelling.
The component of Uzbek compounds are combined in this way: 1. phonetical changes in the 1st
components of compound words. The consonants in the beginning of the 1st
component may be changed into another component:
Ex: сичқончўп - тишқончўп (the names of plant)
чилонжийда – жилонжийда
созтупроқ - соғтупроқ
In some compounds suffixes may be omitted and may form variants of the compounds words.
Ex: тугмачагул - тугмагул (“ча” is omitted)
гадойтахлит - гадотахлит (“й” is omitted.)
айта олмаслbк – айтолмаслик1
бўла олмаслик - бўлолмаслик2
In compound word is ended with “йо”, it must be written separately if it is ended with “ё” it must be written together as one word.
Ex: қишлай олмоқ - қишлаёлмоқ
ушлай олмоқ - ушлаёлмоқ
тўқий олмоқ - тўқиёлмоқ
To form a compound verb with the verbs “емоқ, демоқ” which have “e” sound in the root, one must add “я (й + а)” after “e, дe” e. g.: де+я олмоқ – деяолмоқ, е+я олмоқ, eя олмоқ.
2. Phonetical changes in the 2nd
components of compound words. Ex: итбурун - итмурун Туябўйин - Туямўйин.
“б” consonant in the beginning of the second component a changed into ”в”
Ex: қорабой – қоравой, қўзибой- қўзивой
амакибачча - амакивачча, тоғабачча - тоғавачча.
Some suffixes maybe added to the second element of compound word.
Ex: The most productive suffix for this group is”ли” e. g.
In the book of A.P. Khodjiev’s “Compound and repeated word” ” ли” suffix is given in brackets.
Ex: Such kinds of compound words are given in this book.
2.2.3. Motivation in Compound words.
Compound words are motivated2 through the individual lexical meanings of their components and the meaning of the structure. In motivated compound words the native speaker can see a connection between the lexical meanings of the stems and the meaning of the order and arrangement of components of the word. Motivation in compound words varies in degree. There are compounds which are completely motivated, i.e. the lexical meaning of these words is transparent and is easily deduced from the lexical meanings of the stems and the meaning of their distributional formulas. Compound words like wind-driven, sky-blue, foot-step, foot-pump, door-handle, and bottle-opener may serve as examples of completely transparent or motivated compound words. Motivation in compound words may be partial, but again the degree will vary. Compound words like hand-bag, flowerbed, handcuff are all only partially motivated, but still the degree of transparency of their meanings is different: hand-bag, e.g., is essentially 'a bag designed to be carried in the hand', whereas handcuffs retain only a resemblance to cuffs and in fact are 'metal rings placed round the wrists of 3 prisoner'; a f lower-bed is not 'a mattress or piece of furniture’ as the lexical meaning of the second component suggests; but 'a piece1 of ground where flowers grow'. Compound words with a smaller degree-of partial motivation may be illustrated" by the words: walkup—'a house without an elevator where one has to walk upstairs', cast-off—'discarded', castle-builder—'a day-dreamer, one who builds castle; in the air'.
There are compound words that lack motivation altogether, i.e. the native speaker does not see any obvious connection between the meaning of their structure and the individual meanings of the stems and consequently cannot deduce the lexical meaning of the word. Compound words like eye-wash –‘something said or done to deceive a person’, fiddlesticks - 'nonsense rubbish', wall-flower—'a woman who remains. by the wall as a spectator at a dance, because not chosen as a partner', eye-servant—'a servant who attends faithfully to his duty only when watched’, night-cap—'a drink taken before going to bed at night', dog-eared—'having the corners of the leaves turned down' all lack motivation and their lexical meanings cannot be deduced from the meanings of their components and the meaning of their structure. Lack of motivation in compound words may be often connected with the transferred usage of the denotational meanings of the components or of the whole word as in slow-coach—'a person who acts slowly', sweet-tooth—'one who likes sweet food and drink', wall-flower; the words consequently acquire a new co notational meaning not proper to either of their components. Lack of motivation is of ten due to the specialized and unexpected semantic relations embedded in the compound word as in, e.g., eye-servant, dog-days—'the hottest part of July and August’.
Sometimes the motivated and non-motivated meanings of the same word are felt as two homonymous words, e.g. night-cap 1) a cap worn in bed at night and 2) a drink taken before going to bed at night; eye-wash 1) a liquid for washing the eyes and 2) something said or done to deceive a person; eye-opener 1) enlightening or surprising circumstance and 2) a drink of liquor.
Semantic Classifications
Semantically compound words may be classified (1) according to the degree of motivation, and (2) according to the structural meaning of various distributional formulas described through the interrelation of the components.
1) According to the degree of motivation compound words are subdivided into (a) motivated or non-idiomatic, i.e. words marked either by complete or partial motivation which makes the meaning of the word transparent; (b) non-motivated or idiomatic, i.e. "words the lexical meanings of which cannot be inferred from the individual meanings of their components and the meaning of the distributional formula they are built after.
2) According to the structural meaning or the type of semantic relations between the components compound words may be classified into various groups as words based on the relations of: (a) agent and action, e.g. sunrise, earthquake, (b) object and action, e.g. warship, handshake, (c) the part and the whole, e.g. plum-tree, shirt-collar, eye-ball, etc., (d) the place end the action, or the doer, e.g. street-fighting, grass-hopper, garden-party, (e) the time and the action. e.g. day-flight, night-school, winter-sport, etc., (f) purpose, e.g. table-cloth, driving-suit, bird-cage, etc.
Chapter III Classification of Compounds
2.3 Types of Compounds according types of speech
Compound words may be classified
a) from the functional point of view;
b) from the point of view of the way the components of the compound are linked together and
c) from the point of view of different ways of composition.
a) Functionally compounds are viewed as words belonging to different parts of speech. The bulk of Modern English compound belong to nouns and adjectives: e.g. arm – chair, baby – sitter, boiling – point, knee – high, rain – driven, adverbs and connectives are represented by an insignificant number of words, e.g. indoors, within, outside and we may say that composition on the whole is not productive in adverbs and in connectives. It is of interest to note that composition in verbs in Modern English is not productive either. Verbs that are morphemically compound, such as to (goose flesh, (to) weekend; prove to be words of second derivation on the word – formation level.
b) from the point of view of the means by which the components are joined together compound words may be classified into: 1) words formed by mere placing one constituent after another in a definite order, e.g.: door – handle, rain – driven. This means of linking the components is typical of the greater part of Modern English compounds in all parts of speech.
2) compound words whose components are joined together with a linking element, as in speedometer Fro – Asian; compounds of this type are found both in nouns and in adjectives but present a small group of words considerable restricted by the nature of their components, The components of compound words of this type are mostly joined with the help of the linking vowel [ou] and occasionally the vowel. In both cases the first component often contains a bound root. E.g. Fro – Asian, Sino – Japanese, Anglo Saxon, tragicomic other examples of compound words of this type are electro – dynamic, handicraft, handiwork. This group is generally limited to the names of nationalities and scientific terms. The components of compound nouns may also be joined with the help of the linking consonant [slz] e.g. sportsman, tradesman, saleswoman, bridesmaid, statesman, landsman and etc. This is also a very small group of words restricted by the second component, which is, as a rule, one of the three stems man - , woman - , people - , and the commonest of them being man.
c) Compounds are also classified according to different ways of compounding. There are two ways of composition and accordingly we distinguish two types of compounds: those formed exclusively after a composition pattern, the so called compounds and those formed by a simultaneous operation of two types of word – formation: composition and derivation, the so – called derivational compounds:
Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of words already available in the language, with or without the help of special linking elements such as: door – step, age – long, baby – sitter, looking – glass, they constitute the bulk of English compounds in all parts of speech and include both productive and non – productive patterns.
In Uzbek the relationship between the components of compound words are different: They show:
1. Comparison: карнайгул, отқулоқ туяқуш, шерюрак, қўйкўз.
2. Relevance, purposed for something: гултувак (vase for flower), молқўра, оловкурак, токқайчи,қийматахта. In English washing – machine, blood – vessel (a tube through which bloods flows in the body).
3. Connection to some places: сувилон (a snake which lives in water), тоғолча, чўлялпиз, қўқонарава like in English zookeeper, postman, house keeper, head – dress, ear – ring. In German Hausfrau, Wesserballspiel, Unterseeboot.
4. The mark of something: аччиқтош, олақарға, шўрданак, қизилиштон, Қизилтепа. In English long – legged, bluebell, slow – coach. Here are some examples of German: Dampfheizung, Arbeitkleidung.
5. Relationship to quantity: бешбармоқ, мингоёқ, қирқоғайни, Бешариқ. This rule is also relevant to English compounds such as: three – cornered, fifteen – fold, six – fold, five – sided polygon. In German there are examples of this kind: Funfjahreplan.
Uzbek compound words are classified:
a) from the point of view of the way the components of the compound are linked together: хомкалла, кўксултон, искабтопар.
b) from the point of view of agreeing:
тўйбоши, китобсевар, дунёқараш.
с) from the point of view ofrelationship between subject and predicate: first elements of such kind compound will be predicate: гўшткуйди, келинтушди.
There are 6 types of compound words in Uzbek:
1. Compound nouns 4. Compound pronouns
2. Compound adjectives 5. Compound adverbs
3. Compound verbs 6. Compound number
Most frequently spread English compound words are:
1. Compound nouns
2. Compound adjectives
3. Compound adverbs
4. Compound verbs
German compound words are also divided into 4:
1. Compound nouns
2. Compound adjectives
3. Compound verbs
4. Compound numbers
a) Compound Nouns
2.3.1 Compound Nouns
Most English compound nouns are noun phrases that include a noun modified by adjectives or attribute nouns. Due to the English tendency towards conversion, the two classes are not always easily distinguished. Most English compound nouns that consist of more than two words can be constructed recursively by combining two words at a time. The compound science fiction writer, for example, can be constructed by combining the resulting compound with writer. Some compounds, such as salt and pepper or mother – of pearl, can be constructed in this way, however.
In general, the meaning of a compound is a specialization of the meaning of its head. The modifier
limits the meaning of the head. This is most obvious in descriptive
compounds, also known as Karmad haraya
compounds, in which the modifier is used in an attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard
is a particular kind of board which is generally black
, for instance.
In determinative compounds, however, the relationship is not attributive. For example, a foot stool is not a particular type of stool that is like a foot. Rather, it is a stool for one's foot or feet. (It can be used for sitting on but that is not its primary purpose). In a similar manner, the office manager is the manager of an office, an armchair is a chair with arms, and a raincoat is a coat again
But of the above types of compounds are called endo centric compounds because the semantic head is contained within the compound itself a blackboard is a type of board, for example, and a footstool is a type of stool.
However, in another common type of compound, the exocentric or ba huvrihi compound, the semantic head is not explicitly expressed. a red head, for example, is not a kind of head, but is a person with a red head, but a person with a head that is as hard and unreceptive as a block (i.e. stupid). And, outside of veterinary surgery, a lion – heart is not a type of heart, but a person with a heart like a lion (in its bravery, courage, fearlessness).
Exocentric compounds occur more often in adjectives than nouns. A barefoot girl
, for example, is not a girl that is a bare foot, but a girl with a bare foot. Similarly, a V – 8 car is a car with a V – 8 engine rather than a car that is a V – 8, and a twenty – five – dollar car is a car with
a worth of $ 25, not a car that is $ 25. The compounds shown here are bare, but more commonly, a suffixal morpheme is a added, esp. – ed. Hence, a two – legged
person is a person with two legs and this is exocentric.
On the other hand, endocentric adjectives are also frequently formed, using the suffixal morphemes: - ing or -er/or. A car – carrier
is a clear endocentric determinative compound: it is a thing that is a carrier of cars. The related adjective, car – carrying, is also endocentric: it refers to an object which is a carrying – thing.
These types account for most compound nouns, but there are other, rarer types as well. Coordinative, copulative or dvandva compounds combine elements with a similar meaning, and the compound meaning may be a generalization
instead of specialization. Bosnia – Herzegovina, for example, is the combined area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but a fighter – bomber is an aircraft that is both a fighter and a bomber. Iterative or amredita compounds repeat a single element, to express repetition or as an emphasis. Day – by – day and go –go – go are examples of this type of compound, which has more than one head.
Analyzability may be further limited by cranberry morphemes and semantic changes. For instance, the word butterfly, commonly thought top be a metathesis for flutter by, which the bugs do, is actually based on an old bubbe – maise that butterflies are petite witches that steal butter from window sills. Cranberry is a part translation from Low German, which is why we cannot recognize the element cran (from the Low German kraan or kroon, "crane"). The ladybird or ladybug was named after the Christian expression "our Lady, the Virgin Mary".
In the case of verb + noun compounds, the noun may be either the subject or the object of the verb. In playboy, for example, the noun is the subject of the verb (the boy plays), whereas it is the object in call girl (someone calls the girl).
A black board is any board that is black, and equal prosodic stress can be found on both elements (or, according to psycholinguist Steven Pinker, the second one is accented more heavily.) A blackboard, compound, may have started out as any other black board, but now is a thing that is constructed in a particular way, of a particular material and serves a particular purpose; the word is clearly accented on the first syllable.
Sound patterns, such as stresses placed on particular syllables, may indicate whether the word group is a compound or whether it is an adjective - + - noun phrase. A compound usually has a falling intonation: "blackboard", the "White House", as opposed to the phrases "black board". (Note that this rule does not apply in all contexts. For example, the stress pattern "white house" would be expected for the compound, which happens to be a proper name, but it is also found in the emphatic negation "No, not the black house; the white house!").
Uzbek compound nouns.
Uzbek compound nouns are formed in the following ways:
1. Noun and noun: отқулоқ, қўларра
2. Adjective + noun: кўксултон, хомток
3. Noun + adjectivesective: гулбеор, ошкўк
4. Number + noun: мингоёқ, қирқоғайни, учбурчак
5. Noun + verb ўринбосар, бешиктерватар
6. Verb + verb искабтопар, олиб сотар
Following compoundwords are written without hyphen:
1) The nouns with one stress: гулкўрпа, ошқозон, ўқилон, тутмайиз.
2) Nouns + aр suffix: отбоқар, изқувар
3) Geographical places: Сирдарё, Оқтепа
German Compound nouns
are formed in these ways:
1. Noun + noun: Infinitivform
2. Verb + noun: Leitglied
3. Noun + adjective: Kleinkind, Reinmetall, Hochstufe
4. Number + noun: Erststellung, Drittdroße, Tausendfuss
5. Pronoun + noun: Ichton, Erform, Ichbewußtsein
6. Adverb + noun: Spätstellung
7. Präposition + noun: Mitschüler, Zwischenglied, Abart.
German Noun + verb nouns may express different relationships:
1. Object of action: Kindererziehung, Blaubersammlung
2. Subject of action: Mutterliebe
3. Material: Brotteig
4. Time: Sonntagsanzug
5. Place: Dorfteich, Waldrande
6. Purpose: Brotmesser, Roman Schreiber
2.3.2 Compound Adjectives
English compound adjectives are constructed in a very similar way to the compound noun. Black board jungle, gunmetal sheen and green monkey disease are only a few examples.
There are some similarities in forming English and German compound nouns: The components of some compound nouns may be joined with the help of linking consonant: English compound nouns statesman, sportsman nounsstatesman, and sportsman are joined with the consonant "s".
German compound nouns are joined:
· with the help of linking element – "s" or "es"
die Arbeit + s + der Plan = der Arbeitsplan
das Land + es + die Grenze = die Landesgrenze
· with the help of " - in" or " - en".
der Student + en + die Versammlung = die Studentenversammlung
· with the help of linking element "e"
halt(en) + e + das Signal = das Haltesignal.
· without a' linking element:
der Tausch + der Wert = der Tauschwert.
But in Uzbek all compound nouns are joined together without any linking element.
A compound adjective is a modifier of a noun. It consists of two or more morphemes of which the left – hand component limits or changes the modification of the right – hand one, as in "the dark – green dress
": dark limits the green that modifies dress.
Solid compound adjectives
There are some well – established permanent compound adjectives that have become solid over a longer period, especially in American usage: earsplitting, eye catching. However, in British usage these, apart from downtown
, are more likely written with a hyphen: ear – splitting.
Other solid compound adjectives are for example:
· Numbers that are spelled out and have the suffix – fold added: "fifteen ‘fold", "six fold".
· Points of the compass: "northwest", northwesterly, "northwestwards", but not North –West Frontier
.
Hyphenated compound adjectives
A compound adjective is hyphenated if the hyphen helps the reader differentiate a compound adjective from two adjacent adjectives that each independently modifies the noun. Compare the following examples:
· "acetic acid solution": a bitter solution
producing vinegar or acetic acid
(acetic + acid + solution)
· "acetic - acid solution ": a solution of acetic acid.
The hyphen is unneeded when capitalization or italicization making grouping clear:
· "Old English scholar ": an old person who is English and a scholar
, or and old scholar who studies English
· "Old English scholar": is scholar of Old English
· "De facto
proceedings" not (de – facto)
If, however, there is no risk of ambiguities, it may be written without a hyphen: "Sunday morning walk". Hyphenated compound adjectives may have been formed originally by an adjective preceding noun:
· "Round table" – "round – table discussion"
· "Blue sky" – "blue sky law"
· "Red light" – "red light district"
· "Four wheels" – "four wheel drive" (the singular, not the plural is used).
Others may have originated with a verb preceding and adjective or adv: "feel good" – "feel – good factor", "by now, pay later" – "by – now pay – later purchase".
Yet others are created with an original verb preceding a preposition
:
· "Stick on" - "stick – on label"
· "Walk on" - "walk – on part"
· "Stand by" - "stand – by fare"
· "Roll on; roll off" - "roll – on roll – off ferry".
The following compound adjectives are always hyphenated when they are not written as one word:
· An adjective preceding a noun to which –d or –ed has been added as a past – participle
construction, used before a noun:
o "loud – mouthed hooligan"
o "middle – aged lady"
o "rose - tinted glasses "
· A noun, adjective, or adv preceding a present participle
:
o "an awe – inspiring personality"
o "a long – lasting affair"
o "a far –reaching decision"
· Numbers spelled out or as numerals:
o "seven-year itch"
o "five-sided polygon"
o "20th
-century poem"
o "30-pice band"
o "tenth-story window"
· A numeric with the affix –fold has a hyphen (15-fold), but when spelled out takes a solid construction (fifteen fold).
· Numbers, spelled out or numeric, with added –odd: sixteen –odd, 70-odd.
· Compound adjectives with high- or low-: "high-level discussion", "low-price markup".
· Colors in compounds:
o "a dark-blue sweater"
o "a reddish-orange dress".
· Fractions as modifiers are hyphenated: "five-eight inches", but if numerator
or denominators are
already hyphenated, the fraction itself does not take a hyphen: "a thirty-three thousandth part".
· Fraction used as nouns have no hyphens: "I ate only one third of pie".
· Comparatives and superlatives in compound adjectives also take hyphens:
o "the highest-placed competitor"
o "A shorter-term loan".
· However, a construction with most
is not hyphenated:
o "The most respected member".
· Compounds including two geographical modifiers:
o "Afro-Cuban"
o "African-American" (sometimes)
o "Anglo-Asian"
· But not
o "Central American
".
The following compound adjectives are not normally hyphenated:
· Where there is no risk of ambiguity:
o "a Sunday morning walk"
· Left-hand components of a compound adjective that end in –ly that modify right-hand components that are past participles (ending in –ed):
o "a hotly disputed subject"
o "a greatly improved scheme"
o "a distantly related celebrity"
· Compound adjectives that include comparatives and superlatives with more, most, less or least:
o "a more recent development"
o "the most respected member"
o "a less opportune moment"
o "the least expected event"
· Ordinarily hyphenated compounds with intensive adv in front of adjectives:
o "very much admired classicist"
o "Really well accepted proposal".
English compound adjectives are formed:
1. Adjective + noun: blackboard
2. Adjective + adjective: blue-green, dark-red, light-green.
3. Adjective + verb: highlight
4. Adjective + preposition: forthwith.
In Uzbek compound adjectives are formed in the following way:
1. Noun + noun – these adjectives are written separately: ҳаво ранг, кул ранг
2. Adjective + noun – these adjectives are written as one word: қимматбаҳо
3. Noun or adverb a verb with the suffix "ap": тезоқар, эрксевар, меҳнатсевар
But these adjectives are hyphenated when we translate it into English: меҳнатсевар - hard-working, эрксевар - peace – loving and etc.
4. Noun + "apo" word: халқаро as in English international.
There are a group of words which form compound adjectives, such as: аралаш, йўқ, кўл, олий, оч, тўқ, тўла, чала: қумаралаш лой, тенги йўқ қиз, кўп тармоқли соҳа, олий маълумотли, оч қизил, қорни тўқ, тўқ қизил.
In English we can also find the signal words which form compound adjectives; but they are hyphenated: light, dark, long, middle, high: e.g. light – green, dark-blue, middle-aged, long-legged, and high-qualified.
German compound adjectives are formed like English compound adjectives.
1. Adjective + adjective +Adjektive = shwarzweissrot.
Deutsch + usbekisch = deutsch - usbekisch
2. Hell + grün = hell – grün. As in English light – green
3. Adjektive + Adverb = bekannt + in der Welt = Wellbekannt
машхур + дунёда = дунёга машхур
hart + wie Stahl = Stahlhart
қаттиқ + пўлатдай
This kind of adjectives always express comparison rot + wie ziegel = ziegelrot - красныйкаккирпич
blau + wie himmel = himmelblau - синий как небо
But in English “as … as” is used to show comparison: as blue as the sky
2.3.3 Compound Verbs
In Uzbek compound verbs are formed by joining two words:
1. Verb + noun – verb word: дам олмоқ (to rest), ҳимоя қилмоқ(to defend), пайдо бўлмоқ(to appear).
Some of them are synonyms to simple verbs:
ёрдам бермоқ, = ёрдамлашмоқ, - to help – to give a hand
2. Verb + verb = сотиб олмоқ, чиқариб олмоқ, ютиб олмоқ.
Some verbs such as ўқиб чиқди, кўриб бўлди, бошлаб юборди are not compound verbs in speech. They have no a new lexical meaning.
Verbs which are considered compound, may not be a compound verb in English and German:
муҳокама қилмоқ – to discuss (simple verb)
ғолиб бўлмоқ – to win
In German the main word of compoundverb is the second word, but modifying one will be:
· Noun:
teilnehmen - қатнашмоқ
rad fahren - велосипедда учмоқ
· Adjective:
fertigmachen-tayorlamoq, oxiragacha bajarmoq.
festhalten - ushlamoq.
leichtfallen - oson bo`lmoq
· Verb: kennenlernen - знакомитъся.
2.3.4 Classification of compound Words Basedon Correlation
· According to the type of correlation all productive types of compound words may be classified into four major classes:
1. Adjectival-nominalcompounds
comprise four subgroups of compound adjectives-three of them are proper and one derivational, they are built after the following formulas and patterns:
· a, b) the n+a
formula, e. g. snow-white, colour-blind, journey-tired
correlative; with word-groups of the A + as+N,. A +prp+
Ntype, e. g. white as snow, blind to colours, tired of journey.
The structure is polysemantic;
· c) the s+ved formula, e g. fear-stained, duty-bound, wind-driven
correlated with word-groups of the type Ved with/by+N, e. g. stained with tears, bound by duty
,etc. The distributional formula is monosemantic and is based on the instrumental relations between the components;
· d) num+n
formula, e. g. (a)
two-day
(beard), (a) seven-year
(plan), (a) forty-hour
(week) correlative with Num + N type of phrases, e. g. two days, sevenyears
, etc. Adjectives of this subgroup are used only attributively;
· e) the (a+n) + -ed
pattern of derivational compounds, e. g. long-legged, low-ceilinged
. This structure includes two more variants; the first member of the first component may be a
numeral stem or a noun-stem (num+n) +-ed, (n+n) +-ed,
e. g. one-sided,
three-cornered, doll-faced, bell-shaped
. Compounds of this subgroup are correlative with phrases of the type—with (having) + A+N, with (having) + Num+N, with (having)+N+N (or N+of+N), e. g. with
(or having) a low ceiling, with
(or having) one side, with
(or having) three corners, with
(or having) a doll face for
with
(or having) the face of a doll, with
(or having) the shape of a bell.
· The system of productive types of compound adjectives may be presented as follows (table 2).
2. Verbal-nominal
compounds
belong to compound nouns. They may all be described through one general distributional structure n+nv,
i. e. a combination of a simple noun-stem with a deverbal noun-stem. This formula includes four patterns differing in the character of the deverbal noun-stern. They are all based on verbal-nominal word-groups, built after the formula V+N or V+prp+N:
· a) [n+v+-er
)] pattern, e. g. bottle-opener, stage-manager, baby-sitter, peace-fighter
, is monosemantic and is based on agcntive relations that can be interpreted as 'one who does smth';
· b) [n+ (v+-ing)
]pattern, e. g, rocket-flying, stage-managing,
is monosemantic and may be interpreted as 'the act of doing smth';
c) [n+ (v+tion/-ment)
]pattern, e. g. price-reduction, office-management
, is monosemantic and may be interpreted as 'the act of doing smth';
d) compound nouns with the structure n+(v+ conversion), i, e. a combination of –
a simple noun-stem with a deverbal noun-stem resulting from conversion, e. g. wage-art, dog-bite, chimney-sweep. The pattern is monosemantic.
3. V e r b a l v e r b compounds
are a11 derivational compound nouns built after one formal n [(
v+adv)+con
version] and correlative with phrases of the V+Adv type, a. g. a break-down
from (to) break down, a hold-up
from (to): hold up, a lay-out
from (to) lay out
. The pattern ispolysemantic and is circumscribed by the manifold semantic relations typical of conversion pairs.1
4. Nominal
compounds
are all nouns built after the most polysemantic distributional formula (n+n); both stems are in most cases simple, e. g. pencil-case, windmill, horse-race
. Compounds of this class correlate with nominal word-groups mostly characterized by the N+prp+N structure.
Table 3 shows the system of productive types of compound nouns of these three structural classes.
2.3.5 Distributional formulas of Subordinative Compounds
The internal structure of subordinative compounds is marked by a specific pattern of order and arrangement in which the stems follow one another. The order in which the stems are placed within a compound is rigidly fixed in Modern English as the structural centre of the word is always its second component. Stems of almost every part of speech are found in compounds but they are combined to make up compound words according to a set of rigid rules for every part of speech. The choice of stems and the rules of their arrangement and order are known as distributional or structural formulas and patterns of compound words.
As to the order of components subordinative compound words may be classified into two groups:
a)
Syntactic
compounds whose components are placed in the order that resembles the order of words in free phrases arranged according to the rules of syntax of Modern English.
The order of the stems in compounds, e.g. bluebell, slowcoach, mad – doctor
(a+n) reminds one of the order and arrangement of the corresponding words in phrases like a blue bell, a slow coach, a mad doctor
(A+N); compounds like, e.g. know – nothing, kill-joy, tell-tale
made up on the formula v+n
resemble the arrangement of words in phrases like (to) kill joy, (to) know nothing, (to) tell tales
(V+N); the order of components in compounds consisting of two noun – stems door-handle, day-time
(n+n) resembles the order of words in nominal phrases with the attributive function of the first noun as in stone wall, spring time, peace movement
, etc. (N+N).
b)
Asyntactic
compounds whose stems are not placed in the order in which the corresponding words can be brought together under the rules of syntax of the language. For example it is universally known that in free phrases adjectives cannot be modified by adjectives, noun modifiers cannot be placed before adjectives or participles, ye t this kind of asyntactic arrangement of stems is typical of compounds among which we find combinations of two adjective stems, e.g. red-hot, bluish-black, pale-blue; words made up of noun – stems placed before adjective or participle stems, e.g. oil-rich, tear-stained, etc.
Both syntactic and asyntactic compound words in each part of speech should be described in terms of their distributional formulas. For example, compound adjectives are mostly formed of noun, adjective or participle stems according to the formulas n+a
, e.g. oil-rich, world-wide
; n+ved1
, e.g. snow-covered
, home-grown
; a+a
, e.g. pale-green, red-hot
, etc.
Borderline between compound words and free word-groups
Compound words as inseparable vocabulary units taking shape in a definite system of grammatical forms and syntactic characteristics are generally clearly distinguished from and often opposed to free word-groups. Their inseparability finds expression in the unity of their structural, phonetic and graphic integrity.
Chapter IV
2.4 Compound words and free word groups
Compound words as inseparable vocabulary units are on the one hand clearly distinguished from free word-groups by a combination of their specific stress pattern, spelling and their distributional formulas. On the other hand, compound words in Modern English lie astride the border between words and word-groups and display many features common to word-groups, thus revealing close lies and parallelism with the system of free phrases.1
The linguistic analysis of extensive language data proves that there exists a rigid correlation between the system of free phrases andall types of subordinative compounds. The correlation embraces both the structure and the meaning of compound words and seems to be the pivot point of the entire system of productive present-day English composition. The analysis of the structural and semantic correlation between compound words and free word-groups enables us to find the features most relevant to composition and set e system o; ordered rules for productive formulas after which aninfinite number of new compounds constantly appear in the language.
Structural Correlation.
There is a correlation and parallelism between the structure of subordinative compound words and corresponding phrases, which manifests it in the morphological character of the components. Compound words are generally made up of the stems of those parts of speech that form the corresponding free word-groups. The stem of the central member or she head2
of the word-group becomes the structural and semantic centre of the compound, i.e. its second component. e.g. heart-sick
, is made up of the stems of "the noun' heart
and adjective sick
which form the corresponding phrase sick at heart
, with the adjective sick
for its head; man-made
consists of the stems of the words that make the corresponding phrase made by man; door-handle
similarly corresponds to the handle of the door, clasp-knife
to the knife that clasps
, etc. In all these cases the stem of the head-member of the word-group, in our case sick-, made-, handle-
becomes the structural centre of the corresponding compound, i.e. its second component.
The order of the stems coincides with the word-order in word-groups only in the case of syntactic compounds, such as, e.g., blackboard, mad-doctor, pickpocket, tell-tale
, etc., in which the structural centre takes the same place as the head of corresponding word-groups.
In compounds each part of speech correlates only with certain structural types of phrases. For example, productive compound adjectives reveal correlation mostly with adjectival-nominal word-groups,1
i.e. word-groups whose heads are adjectives (or Numerals and Participles) of the type A+prp+N, Ved
+ by/with+N, with+A+N, e.g, adjectives oil-rich, heart-sick
correspond to word-groups rich in oil, sick at heart
(i.e., n+a→A+prp+N); duty-bound
, smoke-filled
to bound by duty, filled with smoke
(i.e., n+ved+Ved+by/with+N); low-ceilinged
to with a low ceiling
{[(a+n) +ed
] →with+A+N}. Productive compound nouns correlate mostly with nominal word-groups (consisting of two nouns), verbal-nominal and verb-adverb word-groups, e.g.. Moonlight, diving-suit
, correspond to the light of the moon
, a suit for diving" (i.e. n+n
→N+prp+
N):proof-reader
, peace-fighting
to (to) read proofs
, (to) fight for peace
(i.e., n+nv→V+N, V+prp+N), etc. So it follows that the distributional formulas of compound words in each part of speech are circumscribed by the structure of correlated word-groups.
Semantic Correlation.
Semantically, the relations between the components of a compound mirror the semantic relations between the member-words in correlated word-groups. The semantic relations established between the components, for example, in compound adjectives built after n+ved
formula, e.g. duty-bound, snow-covered
are circumscribed by the instrumental relations typical of the members of correlated word-groups of the type Ved + by /with+N regardless of the actual lexical meanings ofthe stems; compound adjectives of the (a+n)+ed pattern like long-legged, straight-backed
mirror possessive relations found between words in correlated word-groups of the with+A+N type, e.g. with long legs, with a straight back
; compound nouns built after the pattern n+(v+-er)—letter-writer, bottle-opener, traffic-controller
display agentive semantic relations typical of word-groups 'one who writes letters'; 'the thing that opens bottles' built after the general formula N that V+N.
Structural and semantic correlation by no means implies a one-to-one correspondence of each individual pattern of compound words to one word-group formula or pattern. For example the n+nv
formula of compound nouns comprises different patterns such as [n+(v+-er)]
rocket-flyer, bottle- opener, cover-shooter
, [n+(v+-ing]
street-fighting, rocket-flying, cover-shooting
; both patterns correlate in the final analysis with verbal-nominal word-groups of one formula—V+N or V+prp+N,e.g. to flyrockets, to fight in the streets, to shoot from a cover
. However, the reverse relationship is not uncommon, e;g. one distributional formula of compound adjectives (n+a)
in words like age-long, sky-high
, colour blind
corresponds to a variety of individual word-group patterns which differ in the grammatical and semantic relations between member-words expressed by the preposition, thus, compounds journey-tired, girl-shy, oil-rich, world-wide
correspond to tired of journey
(A+of+N), shy before girls
(A+before+N); rich in oil
(A+in+N);wide as the world
(A+as+N). Nominal compound made up of two simple noun-stems (n+n)
may serve, as another example of the semantic correlation between formulas of compound nouns with a variety of individual patterns of nominal word-groups. Compound nouns like doorstep, hand-bag, handcuffs
incorporate manifold semantic relations found between member-words of various patterns of the general formula of word-groups N+prp
+N. Nominal compounds appear to express freely in aconcise form what can be expressed only in a more elaborate and complicated periphrastic way by word-groups. "It should be remembered that the semantic relations in some cases may be interpreted differently.
Even the few examples given as illustration lead us to the conclusion that the structure of compound words, as a rule, is more concise and of much wider semantic range than the structure of correlated word-groups due to the fact that compound words do not require any elaborates way to express the relationship between their components except their order. Therefore compound words which establish regular correlative relations with word-groups are on the one hand motivated and on the other hand serve as patterns, or sets of structural and semantic rules guiding the spontaneous formation of new compound words. Consequently motivation and regular semantic and structural correlation between compound words and word-groups may be regarded as factors which arc most conducive to high productivity of compound words. It is natural that formulas which do not establish such regular correlative" relations and which result in compound words characterized by lack or very low degree of motivation, must he regarded as unproductive, for example, compound nouns built after a+n
formula, e. g. blackbird, bluebell, mad-doctor
, etc., are marked by lack of motivation or high degree of idiomaticity, hence the formula a+n
for compound nouns is unproductive for Modern English.
Chapter V
2.5 Diachronic approach to compound words
Like all other linguistic phenomena compounding may be approached synchronically and diachronically. If a synchronic treatment concentrates on structural and semantic features relevant for productive patterning of compound words, the diachronic treatment is concerned with the various changes compound words undergo in the course of time and the way compound words appear in the language. Once a compound has been formed it is subject to all the phonological changes affecting English polysyllabic words. Various changes in the phonetic structure and stress pattern of compound words may result in a number of changes in its morphemic structure. The separate morphemes in a compound may become fused or even lost altogether; the meanings of the components may also fuse in the course of time into a newer meaning or become forgotten. As a result of this process, known as the process of simplification, compound words may undergo such radical changes that they may be even transformed into derived or simple words.[1]
Productive types of compound nouns Table 3
Free Phrases |
Compound Nouns |
||
Compounds Proper |
Derivational Compounds |
Pattern |
|
A. Verbal-Nominal Phrases
1. the reducer of price to reduce 2. the reducing of prices prices 3. the reduction of prices to shake 4. the shake of hands hands |
1. price-reducer 2. price-reducing 3. price-reduction 4. hand-shake |
[n
[n+ -ing)] [n+(v+--tion/ -ment)
[n
|
|
B. Verb-Adverb Phrases
to break down to cast away to run away |
a break-down a castaway a runaway |
[(v+ adv) + c
|
|
C. Nominal Phrases
1. a tray or ashes 2. the neck of the bottle 3. a house in the country; a chair with arms 4. a ship run by steam 5. the doctor is a woman 6. a fish resembling a sword |
1. ash-tray 2. bottle-neck 3. country-house; arm-chair 4. steamship 5. woman-doctor 6. sword-fish |
[n2
|
|
There are many words in Modem English that do not in any way differ from the bulk of simple words and yet have undergone the process of simplification and may be traced back to their original compound structure.
Ways of Forming Compounds. Sources of Compounds
The actual process of building compound words may take different forms:
1) Compound words a rule are built spontaneously after productive distributional formulas of the given period. Formulas productive at one time may lose their productivity at another period. Thus at one time the process of building verbs by compounding adverbial and verbal stems was productive, and numerous compound verbs like, e, g. outgrow,
overturn, overthrow
(adv+v
), were formed. The structure ceased to be productive and today no verbs are built in this way.
2) Compounds may be the result of a gradual process of semantic isolation and structural fusion of free word-groups. Such compounds as forget-me-not
— 'a small plant with blue1
flowers', scarecrow
(from an earlier scare-the-crows
)—'a figure used to scare birds away from crops', pickpocket
(from pick the pocket
)—'one who steals from pockets', bridesmaid—'an unmarried woman attending the bride at a wedding', bull's-eye
—'the centre of a target; a kind of hard, globular candy", mainland
—'acontinent' all go back to free phrases which became semantically and structurally isolated in the course of time. The words that once made up these phrases have lost, within these particular formations, their integrity, their part-of-speech meaning and the whole phrase has become isolated in form, specialized in meaning andthus turned into an inseparable unit—a word acquiring semantic and morphological unity.
Most of the syntactic compound nouns of the (a+n
) structure, e. g. bluebell, blackboard, mad-doctor
, are the result of such semantic and structural isolation of free word-groups; to give but one more example—highway
was once actually a high way
for it was raised above the surrounding countryside for better drainage and ease of travel. Now we use highway
without any idea of the original sense of the first element.1
Productive types of compound adjectives
Table 3
Free Phrases |
Compound Adjectives | |||
Compounds Proper |
Derivational Compounds |
Pattern |
Semantic Relations |
|
A. as white as snow |
1. snow-white |
— |
n+a
|
Relations of resemblance |
| B. free from carp; rich in oil; greedy for power; tired of pleasure | 2. care-free oil-rich power-greedy pleasure-tired |
— |
n+a
|
Various adverbial relations |
C. covered with snow; bound by duty |
3.
duty -bound |
— |
n +Ved
|
Instrumental (or agentive relations) |
D. two days |
4. (a) two-day (beard) (a) seven-year (plan) |
— |
num
|
Quantitative relations |
E. with (having) long, legs |
— |
5. long-legged | (a+ n) + +ed
|
Possessive relations |
Conclusion
Modern English is very rich in Compound words. Compound words are made up by joining two or more stems.
Ex: taxi-driver, in German Weltoffenheit, in Uzbek кунгабоқар.
A compound word has a single semantic structure. We distinguish the meaning of the compound words from the combined lexical meaning of its components. Ex: “pencil-case” is a case for pencils. A change in the order of components of compound words brings a change in the lexical meaning.
Ex: life-boat – “a boat of special construction for saving lives. Boat-life – life on board of a ship.
Compound words are classified into completely motivated partially motivated and non-motivated compound words”.
In completely motivated compound words the lexical meaning of compounds is easily deduced from the lexical meanings of the stems.
Ex: book-case, door-handle.
German Lesesaal.
The compound words “a flower-bed, walk-up are partially motivated compounds because we can guess their meaning partially”. The compounds in which the connection between the meaning and structure and the meanings of components of compounds can not seen from the meaning of its components are called non-motivated compound words. Ex: wall-flower – a woman who remains at wall and is not invited to a dance.
Uzbek and German compounds don’t have non-motivation. Compound words may be classified from the functional point of view or according to their belonging to different parts of speech.
Many of English and German compounds belong to nouns and adjectives while Uzbek compounds belong to nouns, adjectives and verbs:
Noun: looking-glass, armchair, homework.
Arbeitkleidung, Naturwissenschaft (German).
хонтахта, сувилон (Uzbek).
Adjective: hard-working, well-behaved, dry-drink.
hell – grün, weltbekannt.
ҳаво ранг, халқаро, меҳнатсевар.
Adverb: indoors, within, outside.
аллаким, шу ерда, у ерда.
From the point of view how the components are joined together the compound words may be classified into: a) components whose components are joined with a die Entwicklungsländer, der Landbau.
This is also one of the criteria of distinguishing of compounds from word groups.
Like other linguistic phenomena we may approach to the study of compounds synchronically and diachronically. Synchronically we study the structural and semantic patterns of compound words while diachronically we study the various changes compound words undergone on the course of time and the way compound words appear in the language.
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1
Ўзбек тилининг имло луғати 1976 й.
2
“Сўзнинг морфологик вариантлари” Р. Шукуров. 1990 й.
1
See ‘Word - Formation’, § 17.
1
For conventional symbols see ‘Word - Formation’, § 8.
1
Prof. A. I. Smirnitsky as far back as the late forties pointed out rigid parallelism existing between free word – groups and derivational compound adjectives which he termed “grammatical compounds".
2
See ‘Word-Groups and Morphological Units’, § 3.
1
Adjectival-nominal word-groups is a conventional term of this type of word-groups.
[1]
For illustration of historical development of the morphemic structure of compounds see ‘Word-Structure’, § 5.
1
The example is borrowed from A. Sheard, The Words We Use. Andre Deutsch, London, 1962.