РефератыИностранный языкThThe Rise Of Gladiatorial Combat In Rome

The Rise Of Gladiatorial Combat In Rome

Essay, Research Paper


The Rise of Gladiatorial Combat in Rome


Gladiatorial contests (munera gladitoria), hold a central place in our


perception of Roman behavior. They were also a big influence on how Romans


themselves ordered their lives. Attending the games was one of the practices


that went with being a Roman. The Etruscans who introduced this type of


contest in the sixth century BC, are credited with its development but its the


Romans who made it famous. A surviving feature of the Roman games was when a


gladiator fell he was hauled out of the arena by a slave dressed as the Etruscan


death-demon Charun. The slave would carry a hammer which was the demon’s


attribute. Moreover, the Latin term for a trainer-manager of gladiators


(lanista), was believed to be an Etruscan word. (4:50) Gladiators of Ancient


Rome lived their lives to the absolute fullest.


Gladiatorial duels had originated from funeral games given in order to


satisfy the dead man’s need for blood, and for centuries their principle


occasions were funerals. The first gladiatorial combats therefore, took place


at the graves of those being honored, but once they became public spectacles


they moved into amphitheaters. (2:83) As for the gladiators themselves, an aura


of religious sacrifice continued to hang about their combats. Obviously most


spectators just enjoyed the massacre without any remorseful reflections. Even


ancient writers felt no pity, they were aware that gladiators had originated


from these holocausts in honor of the dead. What was offered to appease the


dead was counted as a funeral rite. It is called munus (a service) from being a


service due. The ancients thought that by this sort of spectacle they rendered


a service to the dead, after they had made it a more cultured form of cruelty.


The belief was that the souls of the dead are appeased with human blood, they


use to sacrifice captives or slaves of poor quality at funerals. Afterwards it


seemed good to obscure their impiety by making it a pleasure. (6:170) So after


the acquired person had been trained to fight as best they can, their training


was to learn to be killed! For such reasons gladiators were sometimes known as


bustuarii or funeral men. Throughout many centuries of Roman history, these


commemorations of the dead were still among the principle occasions for such


combats. Men writing their wills often made provisions for gladiatorial duels


in connection with their funerals. Early in the first century AD, the people of


Pollentia forcibly prevented the burial of an official, until his heirs had been


compelled to provide money for a gladiators’ show. (1:174)


It was in Campania and Lucania that the gladiatorial games came to their


full development and took on their classical form. In these new surroundings


they took root and flourished, as can be seen in fourth century BC, tomb


paintings. These pictures show helmeted gladiators carrying shields and lances,


covered with wounds and dripping with blood. (2:84) For Rome a decisive moment


in gladiatorial history was reached in 246 BC, the year when the first Punic War


began. At the funeral of Brutus Pera, his two sons for the first time exhibited,


in the cattle market, three simultaneous gladiatorial combats. By 216 BC the


number of fights given on a single occasion had risen to twenty two.(14:16) In


105 BC the two consuls of the year made gladiatorial games official. There


were no doubts of religious tendency, but the purpose of Roman spectacles, were


a public display of power, that power was primarily military, and also to


compensate the soft Greek culture which now was abroad. (8:98)


The Gladiators


Those compelled to fight gladiator duels included prisoners of war,


slaves and condemned criminals. Among them were numerous followers of the new


Christian faith. During this time persecution fell heavily on their faith, many


won immortal fame as martyrs. Fighting in the arena was one of the sentences


earned by the sacrilege accused against members of the Christian religion


because of their refusal to sacrifice to the emperor. It was written that these


Christians were forced, as gladiatorial novices to run the gauntlet. At other


times they were thrown to the wild beasts. Criminals that were used had


committed crimes that carried a death sentence or harsh manual labor. The


crimes which led to the arena were murder, treason, robbery and arson.


Criminals sentenced to forced labor were often obliged to serve as gladiators,


and were sentenced to three years of combat and two years in the schools.


Sometimes penalties were differentiated according to social class, thus for


certain crimes which in the case of slaves would involve execution, free men or


freedmen (ex-slaves) were condemned to fight in the arena instead. This did not


of course make them gladiators, unless they were trained first, as those


required to provide this sort of sport not always were. And indeed as


gladiators became more expensive in the second century AD the use of untrained


criminals in the amphitheater increased.(7:537) Most gladiators, at Rome and


elsewhere were slaves, but in addition there were always some free men who


became gladiators because they wanted to. The profession was an alternative to


being a social outcast. They were generally derived from the lowest ranking


category of free persons, namely the freedman who had themselves been slaves or


were the son of slaves. Free fighters were more sought after than slaves,


presumably because they shower greater enthusiasm in the arena. Such a


volunteer was offered a bonus if he survived the term of his contract, yet he


still had to swear the terrible oath of submission to be burnt with fire,


shackled with chains, whipped with rods and killed with steel like the rest of


the gladiators. For the period of his engagement, he had become no more than a


slave. (7:539)


Majestic Exhibitions and Schools


There seemed no end to public entertainment’s of one sort or another at Rome.


First there were the regular functions. The number of days in each year given up


to annual games and spectacles of one sort or another in the city was


startlingly large, and increased continually. Already 66 in the time of


Augustus, it had risen to 135 under Marcus Aurelius, and 175 or more in the


fourth century. Gladiatorial amusement had become an essential feature of the


services a ruler had to provide, in order to maintain his popularity and his job.


Emperors themselves had to attend the shows. Emperors watching the shows were


distinct, vulnerable, and subject to public pressures which could not be


displayed elsewhere. That was why the games were not popular with a few rulers


such as Marcus Aurelius. He directed that if a gladiator was freed as a result


of popular outcry in the amphitheater the liberation was to be annulled.


Aurelius found the sport boring and indeed he was unenthusiastic about Roman


entertainment in general. (10:87)


The teaching of gladiators was highly elaborate affair involving


expertise appreciated by those members of the public who attended the games for


something more than blood and thrills. Gladiators were trained at gladiator


schools established during the late Republic at the time of Sulla 138-78 BC.


(2:86) Novices practiced with wooden swords on a man of straw or a wooden post.


The weapons used in more adept practice were heavier than those used in the


arena. Discipline was severe, with ruthless punishments. The barracks they


lived in were so low inmates could only sit or lie.(3:68) Breaking any rules


was not tolerated and resulted in strict reprimanding: shackles, flogging or


even death. (2:86) The main objective of the schools were to produce the best


possible fighters for the arena, thus scrupulous attention was invested in


gladiator health. Their schools were situated in favorable climates, and


equipped with first class doctors. The schools were also provided with resident


medical consultants to check the men’s diet. Gladiators were called hordearii,


barley men, because of the amount of barley that they ate, a muscle building


food. (12:111)


The Types of Gladiators


From Republican times onward, foreign prisoners were made to fight with


their own weapons and in their own styles. Many of these men, were merely


prisoners herded into the arena, but various classes of professional gladiators


likewise came from this category. Such, for example was the origin of the


gladiators known as the Samnites. Generally regarded as the prototypes of all


Rome’s gladiators, they are said to have come into existence after its Samnite


enemies introduced a splendid new type of military equipment in 310 BC.


Gladiators were ranked in different categories according to their fighting style


and the type of weapon they used. These Samnites wore the heavy, magnificent


armor of soldiers. It included a large shield (scutum), a leather or partly


metal greave (ocrea) on the left leg, and a visored helmet (galea) with huge


crests and plumes. To these were added sword (gladius) or lance (hasta), and


the sleeve on the right arm which was part of a gladiators general


equipment.(11:121) Sectores were armed with a sword and mace loaded with lead.


Thraces carried a curved scimitar of varying shape, and a small square or round


shield. Myrmilliones (?Guals’) carried a shield and a short scythe and wore a


distinctive fish ornament on their helmets. The Retiarii were exceptionally


uncovered, except sometimes for a head band. They carried a trident in one hand


and a net in the other. Because the throwing of a net as a method of combat,


was second rate the Retarii were inferior in status to the ranks, and thus had


the worst living quarters. (2:86) The Myrmillo could fight against the Thracian


or against the Retiarius or net fighter. But the principle opponent of the


Retiarius was the Secutor.(12:109)


The Procedure of the Arena


Gladiatorial shows were intensively promoted and advertised to raise


public attention. Descriptions of upcoming contests, appeared on walls and on


the grave stones beside main roads. The opening ceremonies began the day before


the fights. It was then that the supporter of the show donated a splendid feast


to the contestants about to appear on t

he following day. The proceedings of the


murderous day began with a chariot drive and parade. Led and presented by the


sponsor of the games. The gladiators displayed themselves in uniforms topped by


cloaks dyed purple with gold embroidery. Climbing down their chariots, they


marched around the arena, followed by slaves carrying their arms and armor.


Gladiators, especially those who belonged to the emperor’s own troop, were often


finely equipped. When the combatants arrived opposite the emperor’s platform,


they extended their right hands towards him and cried ?Hail, emperor, greetings


from men about to die!’ (Ave, imperator, morituri te salutant!) (7:538)


The games often opened with a convicted criminal being thrown to a lion.


The criminal was given a small sword, and if he could kill the lion his life was


spared. Another way in which they opened the games was to tie the criminal to a


pillar and lower him into a pit of hungry beasts. After these morbid killings


took place, the animal events would take center stage. The most common of these


fights would be a lion against bear. To make the beast ready for fighting they


would starved the animals and poked them with sticks while in the cage.(5:17)


These events were followed by a break, during this break Gladiatores Meridiane


took place. This event consisted of a fully armed gladiator against an unarmed


man. The object was simple, to kill your opponent, the winner went on to fight


the next combatant. The overall winner was the person that was standing in the


end.(2:88) The afternoon brought about the beginning of the gladiatorial events.


Staged with a dramatic sense of climax, the afternoon started with second rate


displays that were bloodless. These mock fighters were called


paegniarii.(1:176) After these mock battles came the real fights, the tamest of


these would be the hand to hand combats with one opponent. However, most of the


contests were worst, ranging from armed fighters against unarmed, two criminals


versus a gladiator, and even a group of gladiators versus another group.


While the fighters were at grips, their trainers (lanista) stood beside


them and hounded them on much like a modern boxers trainer would. Meanwhile the


crowd shouted commands of their own including beat, kill and burn. When a man


fell, the herald raised their trumpets, and spectators yelled ?Got him! He’s had


it!’ (habet, hoc habet). The fallen fighter if he was in a state to move, laid


down his shield, and raised one finger of his left hand for mercy. The decision


whether his life should be spared, rested with the provider of the games, but


he generally let the crowd make the decision. Thumbs up, and a waving of


handkerchiefs, meant his life would be spared, thumbs down and he would be


killed without hesitation. While African boys raked over the bloodstained sand,


fallen gladiators were taken away. A Charon would verify the gladiators death


and finish him off it was necessary. The costumes of the Charon were designed


to look like Mercury, divine guide of dead men’s souls to the infernal


regions.(10:167)


If a fighter’s performance had not given satisfaction, or if he was a


criminal whose survival was not desired, his life was sometimes risked again on


the same day by orders for a repeat performance, against specially introduced


understudies. When neither party won and both were spared, each was described


as stans missus, and such a result was often recorded on inscriptions. The


victorious gladiators were presented with palm branches as a prize, and in Greek


lands of the Empire they were given a wreath or crown in addition or instead.


Both palms and crowns are often shown on funeral monuments. The giver of the


games also provided prize money, according to scales stipulated in the


gladiators’ contracts. (10:169)


The Arenas


In early times gladiators’ duels took place in whatever public places a


town might posses. But then , under the emperors, the characteristic place for


such a contest was the amphitheater. This was an oval auditorium surrounded by


rows of seats facing on to the arena, as in modern bull rings, absorbing the


blood of slaughtered men and beasts. The first permanent amphitheater known to


us is not in Rome but in Campania, the country which inherited the gladiatorial


games from Eturia and passed them on to the Romans. (13:225) The largest and


most famous of all such buildings was initiated by the Flavian dynasty. Opened


by Titus in AD 80, this Colosseum is one of the most marvelous buildings in the


world. Its massive overall measurements are 187 by 155 meters, of which the


space for the arena itself comprises 86 by 54 meters. There was accommodation


for perhaps 45,000 sitting spectators and at least 5,000 more willing to stand.


Underneath the arena is a labyrinth of passages for stage effects, pens for wild


beasts, storage rooms and the mechanism by which scenery and other apparatus


were hoisted into the arena. The emperor’s platform was at the center of one of


the long sides, facing across to the portion of the auditorium reserved for


magistrates and the holder of the games. There were also places for priests,


who also attended these bloodthirsty sports. (13:227) The formula of the


collosseum helped to mold renaissance styles. In the eight century they said


that:


As long as it stands,


Rome will stand;


when it falls, Rome will fall;


when Rome falls, the world will fall


The colosseum has often been raided, but has never fallen. It has been made to


serve many purposes, many of which are ironic. These have included sacred


occasions, church services, and plays. Thus through all the depredation the


colosseum has faced over the years inside and outside of the arena, this


indestructible building still towers over the city today. (13:230)


The Gladiator in Society


The reputation of gladiators in the eyes of the public was curiously


mixed. For one thing they were feared. Society was never able to forget for


very long that the gladiators were a potential danger to society. So, of course


were the masses of slaves in general, and that is why their crimes were so


savagely punished, if one slaved murdered his master, the whole household had to


die. But by training the gladiators they spared the rest of the slaves family,


and forced him to fight for his life in front of the community he violated.


Moreover their legal and moral position in the community was one of complete


shame. When a gladiator was killed, his corpse was not permitted honorable to


be buried, unless it was claimed by his family or a friend. (9:91)


However there is ample proof of the admiration and indeed excitement


that the gladiators aroused. Gladiators became so ingrained in the Roman mind


and soul that they believed in superstitions that resulted from munera. It was


believed that the warm blood of a slaughtered gladiator would cure epilepsy.


When newly married women, parted their hair with a gladiators spear, it brought


good luck if this had belonged to a man mortally wounded in the arena. (8:276)


Gladiators were also seen highly upon by women, graffiti at the Pompeii


amphitheater reveal that members of the profession were loved with the


passionate infatuation which teenage females have for pop singers today.


Although gladiators lived relatively short lives it was possible to win


liberation and retire on receipt of the symbolical wooden sword (rudis). It was


also noted that some ex-gladiators moved upwards into respectable smart circles


of local bourgeoisie’s (9:96)


Opposition and Abolition


It was probably assumed that the munera would go on forever, and that


nothing would stop their growth. With the rise of Christianity a religious


presence lingered about such contests once again. The Roman ruling classes


began to view these contest with a favorable eye. The excuse of encouragement


to warlike toughness continued to be put forward until the eve of the Middle


Ages, although it started to become lame and inhumane. Another purpose present


in the minds of Rome’s rulers was the desire that potentially unruly and


dangerous city population should be amused and kept quiet. They should be given


entertainment that they wanted, no matter how disgusting if might be.


The games gradually lost its original intentions and connections to the


earlier funeral games. Once defenseless human beings are thrown to wild


animals, the original purpose is lost, the purpose now is blood-thirsty


spectators viewing inhumane, unjust executions. (2:87) The new religion however


ended them for good. With the rise of emperor Constantine and Christianity came


the fall of the gladiatorial spectacles. In AD 326, Constantine abolished


gladiators’ games altogether. He also stated that all criminals who would have


in the past have been enrolled for the games must in the future be condemned to


forced labor in the mines instead. By the end of the fourth century,


gladiatorial shows had disappeared from the Eastern Empire. (2:87)


Bibliography


1. Cowell, F. Everyday Life in Ancient Rome. London: B.T Batsford Ltd., 1961.


2. Dining, M. A History of Physical Education: Ancient Rome. Toronto: Captus


Press, 1987.


3. Grant, M. The World of Rome. London: Trinity Press, 1960.


4. Hopkins, K Murderous Games. History Today v33 16-22 1983.


5. Harris, H. Sport in Greece and Rome. New York: Cornell University Press,


1972.


6. Hopkins, K. Death and Renewal. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1983.


7. Jory, E Gladiators in the Theatre. Classical Quarterly v36 537-9 1986.


8. Koestler, A. The Gladiators. New York: Macmillan, 1947.


9. Scullard, H. Festival and Ceremonies of the Roman Empire. New York: Cornell


University Press. 1981


10. Whyte-Mellville, G. A Tale of Rome and Judea The Gladiators. New York:


Longmans Green, 1989.


11. Mattingly, H. Roman Imperial Civilization. London: Edward Arnold


publication. 1959


12. Weirdmann, T. Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge Press, 1992


13. Yonah, M Illustrated Enclylopedia of the Classical World. New York: Harper


and Roe Pub, 1975.


14. Wilkonson, L. The Roman Experience, Anchor Press, 1975.


15. Compton’s Interactive Encyclopedia, Softkey Multimedia, 1996.

Сохранить в соц. сетях:
Обсуждение:
comments powered by Disqus

Название реферата: The Rise Of Gladiatorial Combat In Rome

Слов:3642
Символов:24336
Размер:47.53 Кб.