INTRODUCTION 3
MODAL VERBS 7
Can 11
may 18
we can compare may and can 24
must 25
must and may compared 28
to have to 29
to be to 31
must, to have to and to be to compared 32
ought to 34
Shall and should 35
shall 35
should 36
must, should and ought to compared 41
Should + perfect infinitive, ought to + perfect infinitive and was/were to + perfect infinitive compared 41
will 42
need 47
dare 48
Shouldn’t + Perfect Infinitive, oughtn’t to + Perfect Infinitive and needn’t + Perfect Infinitive compared 49
Final conclusion 50
BIBLIOGRAPHY 52
Introduction
Modality
is expression of speaker’s attitude to what his utterance denotes.
The speaker’s judgment may be of different kinds, that is, the speaker may express various modal meanings. Modal verbs unlike other verbs, do not denote actions or states, but only show the attitude of the speaker towards the action expressed by the infinitive in combination with which they form compound modal predicates. These modal verbs may show that the action (or state, of process, or quality) is viewed by the speaker as possible, obligatory, doubtful, certain, permissible, advisable, requested, prohibited, ordered etc. Modal verbs occur only with the infinitive. This or that meaning is to a great degree determined by communicative type of the sentence and the form of the infinitive. That is a huge problem for foreign learners of English, who make a great deal of mistakes in this field. So, the aim of my work is to show how modal verbs can be used, in what case we need one or other verb and why.
English modality can be expressed not only by modal verbs. Modality can be expressed by different linguistic means. In actual speech all forms expressing modality work together to make the meaning clear. But in every case there is some leading form that expresses the main attitude. These forms fall into four categories: phonetic (intonation), grammatical (mood), lexico-grammatical (modal verbs), lexical (modal words and phrases). But the most important from them is the third form, which includes modal verbs. It is important to take into account one more feature peculiar to modal verbs. They all show that a certain action is represented as necessary, doubtful, etc. From the point of view of the speake, there are verbs which ‘help’ other verbs to express a meaning: it is important to realize that “modal verbs” have no meaning by themselves/ A modal verb such as would
has several varying functions; it can be used, for example, to help verbs express ideas about the past, the present and the future. It is therefore wrong to simply believe that “would
is the past of will
”: it is many other things.
English modality can be expressed not only by modal verbs. There are many ways to express it – generally Mood
shows the relation between the action expressed by the predicate verb and reality. The speaker establishes this relation.
In present-day English the category of mood
is made up by a set of forms opposed to each other in presenting the event described as a real fact, a problematic action of as something unreal that does not exist
.
Actions represented as real facts are expressed by the Indicative Mood
.
E.g
. Architects have done
some very good work, too, in designing new schools. Many of these are
prefabricated, which means
that as much of the building work as possible if done
not on the building site but in factories where mass production methods are used
.
When the brothers had gone
home, Mr. Waterfall announced
that they were
a much pleasanter pair of young men than the had been led
to believe.
The Indicative mood is characterized by a great number of tense-aspect-phase forms that may be used in the Active or in the Passive Voice. It should be stressed that the use of the Indicative Mood does not always mean that the action expressed by the predicate verb is true to fact, that it actually takes (or took, or will take) place in reality. When the speaker uses the Indicative Mood he merely represents
an action as a fact, but he maybe mistaken or even telling a lie.
E.g.
“I’ve seen to it,” he said, but everyone knew it was not true.
Commands and requests, which are problematic actions, are expressed by the Imperative Mood.
The Imperative Mood is the plain stem of the verb (e.g. Come over here. Listen to him,
etc.). It may be used in the affirmative and in the negative form The negative form is an analytical form built up by means of the plain stem of the auxiliary verb to do
followed by not (don’t)
and the infinitive of the notional verb without to
(e.g. Don’t go over there. Don’t listen to him,
etc.). The negative form of the verb to be
is also built up by means of the auxiliary verb to do
(e.g. Don’t be inquisitive. Don’t be a fool
, etc.).
If we wish to make a command or request more expressive, we use the emphatic form. It’s also an analytical form built up with the help of the plain stem of the auxiliary verb to do
which is placed before the notional verb, including to be
(e.g. Do come over here. Do listen to him. Do be quiet
, etc.).
A command or request is generally addressed to the second person singular or plural. There is usually no need to mention the subject of the action before the verb in the Imperative mood. But occasionally the verb may be preceded by you in familiar style (e.g. You don’t worry
.).
A command or request may be addressed to the first person plural. It is also formed with the help of the plain stem of the verb, to let
followed by the pronoun us
(the contracted form is let’s
) and the infinitive of the notional verb. This form is actually an invitation to a joint action (e.g. Let’s have a cup of tea. Let’s do it together,
etc.).
Actions represented as unreal are in present-day English express by a variety of forms.
Among them there is a mood form – the conditional Mood.
The fact that there are a number of forms engaged in expressing unreal actions could be explained historically.
In the older periods English used to be a synthetic language and had special forms that served to express unreal actions – the so-called Subjunctive mood. It was built up synthetically by means of inflections. As a result of loss of inflections, the difference between the forms of the Indicative Mood and the Subjunctive Mood has in most cases disappeared. The place of the old Subjunctive Mood was in a number of cases taken up by analytical forms and modal phrases, i.e. combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive. It is this historical process that accounts for the great variety of different forms expressing unreality in modern English.
As some of the forms expressing problematic or unreal actions are modal phrases, it is necessary before describing the different forms of unreality to treat modal verbs first.
The speaker’s attitude towards the action if the sentence may be expressed in different ways:
1) By one of the mood forms that serve to show whether the action is represented as a real fact of as problematic, or unreal, this form of expression is found in every sentence because it is indispensable to predication.
2) By modal verbs
which represent an action as necessary or unnecessary, possible or impossible, certain of doubtful and the like. But modal verbs need not be used in every sentence and are, therefore, to be regarded as an additional means of expressing the speaker’s attitude towards the action in the sentence.
3) By attitudinal adverbs
such as certainly, perhaps, probably, luckily, unfortunately
, etc. They express different degrees of certainty on the part of the speaker of the desirability of the action from his point of view.
Modal Verbs
We find the following modal verbs in English: can, may, must, ought, shall, should, will, need and dare
. Besides, to have
and to be
in some of their uses are also classed among modal verbs. A modal verb in combination with the infinitive forms a modal compound predicate
.
Modal verbs are defective verbs since they lack many forms characteristic of regular verbs: they have no –s in the third person singular in the present tense and no verbal, so they have no analytical forms; some of them lack the form of the past tense.
Modal verbs have the following peculiarities:
1) they are followed by the infinitive without
the particle to
(with the exception of ought, to have
and to be
);
2) their interrogative and negative forms are built up without
the auxiliary do.
Most of the verbs have more than one meaning. Each of their meanings is characterized by a specific usage.
1) Some of the meanings may be found in all kinds of sentences; others occur only in affirmative of interrogative or negative sentences;
2) Different meanings may be associated with different forms of the infinitive – simple and perfect (both in the active and passive forms), continuous and perfect continuous;
3) If the modal verbs have more than one form (can – could, may – might, will – would,
also the verbs to have
and to be
), their different meanings are not necessarily found in all those forms.
The use of modal verbs is in most cases independent of the structure of the sentence: the use of this of that modal verb is determined by the attitude of the speaker towards the facts contained in the sentence. In this case we may speak of the free or independent use of modal verbs.
E. g.
He admires you. He thinks you’re a little beauty. Perhaps I oughtn’t to have told
you that.
He may be
in the hall now, waiting for me.
But sometimes the use of certain modal verbs depends on the structure of the sentence, mainly on the type of the subordinate clause, and occasionally also on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the principal clause. This may be called the structurally dependent
use of modal verbs
.
E. g.
It is obviously necessary that an investigation should be made
.
Christine feared
she might not be met
at all.
When the use of modal verbs is structurally dependent, their meaning is sometimes weakened; in fact, it may be quite vague. This may be accounted for by the fact that these verbs become rather part of the structure than bearers of individual meaning.
It is important to take into account one more feature peculiar to modal verbs. They all show that a certain action is represented as necessary, possible, desirable, doubtful, etc. from the point of view of the speaker
. Consequently, modal verbs are generally used in conversation. In past-time contexts they may be found only in reported speech or thought, Thus You should have done it before
, or He might be wrong
, or It must be true
cannot be possibly found in narration unless they are used after He thought that … He said that … He knew that …
, etc.
The only exceptions are the past tense forms could, would, had, was
and might
which may be used only in conversation but also in narration.
E. g.
Walker was illiterate and could not sign
his name.
When I looked at her I saw tears in her eyes. So I had to tell
her the truth.
We can’t but mention that modal verbs are of common usage in literature – both American and English. In this work several examples taken from the works of famous American and English writers of the 18-19th
centuries, such as I. Asimov, O. Henry, S. Maugham, F. Scott Fitzgerald, A. Christie, O. Wilde, M. Spark and others, can vividly show you their usage and importance in speech. We guess it’ll be necessary to provide you with some examples on their usage from different newspapers and analyze them thoroughly.
Can
The modal verb can
has the following forms: can
– the present tense (e.g. He can speak English
) and could
– the past tense. The form could
is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts as a form of the Indicative Mood (e.g. He could speak English when he was a child
), b) in present-time contexts to express unreality, or as a milder and more polite form of can
, or as a form implying more uncertainty than can
(e.g. He could speak English if necessary. Could I help you? Could it be true?
). Compare with the Russian мог бы: Он мог бы сделать это, если бы у него было время
(unreality). Не мог бы я Вам помочь?
(politeness). Неужели он мог бы так сказать?
(uncertainty).
Can
has the following meanings:
1)
ability, capability,
E.g
. I can imagine
how angry he is.
We can represent
a figure of a three-dimensional solid.
This meaning may also be expressed by to be able
. The phrase can be used in all tense-forms if necessary.
In the meaning of ability and capability can
occurs in all kinds of sentences.
E.g.
Right and left we can go
, backward and forward freely enough, and men always have done so. You can move
about in all directions of Space, but you cannot move
about in Time.
In this case can
is followed by the simple infinitive and reference is made to the present. But depending on the context it may also refer to the future.
E.g.
He can go
up against gravitation in a balloon, and why should he not hope that ultimately he may be able to stop or accelerate his drift along the Time-Dimension, or even turn about and travel the other way?
However, if the time reference is not clear from the context or if it is necessary to stress that the action refers to the future, shall/will be able
is used.
E.g.
He will be able to write
to us from Portugal. I shall be able to earn
by own living soon.
The form could
may be used in past-time contexts and in this case it is followed by a simple infinitive. It is a form of the Indicative Mood here.
E.g.
A man could not cover himself with dust by rolling in a paradox, could he? But then where could
it be
? After what had happened I couldn’t trust
him.
The form could
may also be used in present-time context in combination with the simple infinitive to express unreality with reference to the present or future.
E.g.
I told myself that I could never stop
, and with a gust of petulance I resolved to stop forthwith. (не смог бы прекратить).
You could articulate
more distinctly with that cigarette our of your mouth. (мог бы говорить более отчетливо).
As the form could
may be used in two ways it is usually undertoosd as expressing unreality with reference to the present or
future unless there are indications of past time in the sentence or
in the context. Thus the sentence She could paint landscapes
will be understood as Она
могла
бы
писать
пейзажи
.
If there is no
indication of past time in
the context but the speaker wishes to refer the action to the past, was/were able
is used of could
to avoid ambiguity.
E.g.
She was able to explain
the mystery.
In combination with the perfect infinitive could
indicates that the action was not carried out in the past.
E.g.
She could have explained
the mystery. (Она могла бы объяснить эту тайну; но не объяснила).
2)
possibility due to circumstances.
E.g.
You can see
the forest through the other window.
We can use either the Present Perfect of the Present Perfect Continuous in this sentence.
In this meaning can
is found in all kinds of sentences. It is followed by the simple infinitive and it refers the action to the present of future.
E.g.
You can obtain
a dog from the Dog’s Home.
Can
we use
the indefinite article with this noun?
We can’t use
the indefinite article with this noun.
In past-time contexts the form could
is used. It is followed by the simple infinitive in this case.
E.g.
You could see
the forest through the other window before the new block of houses was erected.
The form could
in combination with the simple infinitive may also express unreality with reference to the present of future.
E.g.
You could see
the houses from here if it were not so dark.
In combination with the perfect infinitive, could
indicate that the action was not carried out in the past.
E.g.
You could have seen
the house from there if it had not been so dark.
3)
Permission
E.g.
You can take
my umbrella.
Can
in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, interrogative sentences in which a request is expressed, and in negative sentences where it expresses prohibition.
E.g.
You can use
my car. Can
I use
your car? You can’t use
my car today.
In this meaning can
is combined with the simple infinitive.
The form could
with reference to the present is found only in interrogative sentences in which it expresses a more polite request.
E.g.
Could
I use
your car?
The form could
is found in reported speech (i.e. in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses).
E.g.
He said that I could use
his car.
He asked me if he could use
my car.
4)
uncertainty, doubt
E.g.
Can
it be
true?
In this meaning can
is found only in interrogative sentences (in general questions). Besides, sentences of this kind are often emotionally colored and so their application is rather restricted.
Depending on the time reference, can
in this meaning is used in combination with different forms of the infinitive.
Thus, if reference is made to the present, the simple infinitive is found with static verbs.
E.g.
Can
he really be
ill?
Can
it be
so late?
With dynamic verbs, the continuous infinitive is used.
E.g.
Can
she be telling
lies?
Can
he be making
the investigation all alone?
Can
in combination with the perfect infinitive refers the action to the past.
E.g.
Can
he have said
it? Can
she have told
a lie?
The combination of can
with the perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with static verbs.
E.g.
Can
she really have been
at home all this time?
However, if can
is followed by a dynamic verb the Perfect Continuous infinitive is used.
E.g.
Can
she have been waiting
for us so long?
Could
with reference to the present is also used in this way, implying more uncertainty.
E.g.
Could
it be
true?
Could
she be telling
lies?
Could
he have said
if?
Could
she have been waiting
for us so long?
In Russian both variants, with can
and could
, are rendered in the same way: Неужели
это
правда?
Неужели он лжет?
And so on.
5)
Improbability
E.g.
It can’t be
true. (Это не может быть правдой. Вряд ли это так.)
In this meaning can is found only in negative sentences, which are often emotionally colored. Depending on the time reference, this can
is also used with different forms of the infinitive/
E.g.
He can’t be
really ill.
She can’t be telling
lies.
He can’t have said
it.
She can’t have been
at home all this time.
She can’t have been waiting
for us so long.
Could
is also used in this way making the statement less categorical
E.g
. It couldn’t be
true.
She couldn’t be telling
lies.
He couldn’t have said
it.
She couldn’t have been
at home all this time.
She couldn’t have been waiting
for us so long.
Can
and could
followed by different forms of the infinitive, are found in special questions where they are used for emotional coloring (to express puzzlement, impatience, etc.).
E.g.
What can (could)
he mean?
What can (could)
he be doing?
What can (could)
he have done
?
Where can (could)
he have gone
to?
It can be rendered in Russian as: Что,
собственно,
он
имеет
в
виду
?
As is seen from the above examples, the form could
referring to present is sometimes clearly opposed to can
in that it expresses unreality whereas can
expresses reality. This may be observed in the following meanings:
ability
– He can speak
English. He could speak
English if necessary.
possibility due to circumstances
– You can get
the book from the library. You could get
the book from the library if necessary. E.g. “You can have a million books on our television screen, and even more. There is nothing to throw away.” (I. Asimov)
“How could a man be a teacher? “ (I. Asimov)
In the other meanings, however, this difference between the two forms is obliterated. Could
is used either as a milder or mote polite form of can
as a form implying more uncertainty than can
:
permission
– Can
I use
your pen? Could
I use
your pen? (more polite)
uncertainty, doubt, improbability
– Can
it be
true? Could
it be
true (less certain). It can’t be
true. It couldn’t be
true (less certain).
We can also find some examples of modal verbs usage in some newspapers , magazines or in literature.
E.g. It could
be true but it is advisable to find out first what has really happened there. (Может быть, это и правда, но лучше сначала выяснить, что же действительно там произошло.)
“Honey, you couldn’t
support a wife,” she answered cheerfully. “Anyway, I know you too well to fall in love with you.” (F. Scott Fitzgerald)
In this case the verb could is used here in the meaning of doubt, uncertainty and improbability.
May
The modal verb may
has the following forms: may
– the Present tense (e.g. it may be
true) and might
– the Past tense. The form might
is used in two ways: a) in past-time contexts, mainly in reported speech in accordance with the rules of the sequence of tenses (e.g. He told me that it might be true)
and b) in present-time contexts as a milder and more polite form of may
, or as a form implying more uncertainty than may (e.g. Might I come and see you? It might be true)
, or to express unreality (e.g. He might have fallen ill if he hadn’t taken the pills)
.
May
has the following meanings:
1) supposition implying uncertainty
E.g
. He may be
busy getting ready for his trip.
In Russian this meaning is generally rendered by means of the modal adverbs возможно
and может
быть.
In English this meaning may also be rendered by means of the attitudinal adverbs perhaps
and maybe
.
In the meaning of supposition implying uncertainty the verb may
occurs in affirmative and negative sentences.
E.g.
He may be
at home.
He may not be
at home (Возможно, что его нет дома).
Two factors may
temporarily have
increased
their caution. (W. Faulkner)
In this meaning may
can be followed by different forms of the infinitive depending on the time reference expressed.
May
in combination with the simple infinitive usually refers the action to the future.
E.g.
He may come
soon.
The action may also refer to the present but only with stative verbs.
E.g.
He may be
ill.
He may not know
about it.
May
in combination with the Continuous infinitive of dynamic verbs refers the action to the present.
E.g
. It’s too late to phone him now. He may be sleeping
.
I never see him about now. For all I know, he may be writing
a book.
May
in combination with the Perfect infinitive refers the action to the past.
E.g
. He may have fallen
ill.
“What’s happened to the dog?” I asked. “It isn’t here. His master may have taken
it with him.”
The combination of may
with the Perfect infinitive may also indicate an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking. This is usually found with stative verbs.
E.g.
He may have be
en at home from about two hours.
However, if may
is followed by a dynamic verb, the Perfect Continuous infinitive is used.
E.g
. He may have been waiting
for us for an hour.
In the meaning of supposition implying uncertainty, the form might is also found. It differs from the form may in that it emphasizes the idea of uncertainty. It may be followed by the simple, Continuous or Perfect infinitive.
E.g.
He might come
soon. He might be
ill.
He might be doing
his lesson now. He might have spoken
to her yesterday.
3)
possibility due to circumstances
E.g.
You may order
a taxi by telephone.
A useful rough-and-ready rule is that rime adverbs may come at either end of the sentence, but not in the middle.
May
in this meaning occurs only in affirmative sentences and is followed only by the simple infinitive.
The form might
is used in past-time contexts in accordance with the rules of the sequence of the tenses.
E.g.
He said the might order
a taxi by telephone.
Might
followed by the Perfect Infinitive indicates that the action was not carried out owning to certain circumstances (expressed in the sentence or implied).
E.g
. He might have fallen
ill if he hadn’t taken the medicine.
Luckily he wasn’t driving the car. He might have been hurt
.
You are so careless. You might have broken
the cup. (Ты чуть было не разбил чашку).
It seemed to him that the most interesting thing in life was what might
lie just around the corner. (O. Henry)
4)
permission
E.g.
The director is alone now. So you may see
him now.
If you have got a car and can drive, you may spend
part of your holiday moving from place to place. (C. Eckersley)
May
in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences, in interrogative sentences which usually express a request, and in negative sentences where it denotes prohibition. But in negative sentences it is not common as prohibition is generally expressed by other modal verbs (see can
and must
).
E.g.
You may smoke
in here. May
I smoke
in here? You may not smoke
in here.
In this meaning may
is combined only with the simple infinitive. In interrogative sentences the form might
is also found when we wish to express a more polite request.
E.g.
May
I join
you?
In reported speech the form might
is used.
E.g.
He told me that I might smoke
in the room He asked me if he might join
us.
5)
disapproval or reproach
E.g.
You might carry
the parcel for me. You might have helped
me.
Here we find only the form might
used in affirmative sentences and followed by the simple of Perfect infinitive. In the latter case it expressed reproach for the nonperformance of an action.
The form might
which expresses unreality is not always parallel to may. Might
expresses unreality only in combination with the Perfect infinitive.
E.g.
You might have let
me know about it beforehand.
There was a car accident in front of our house. Luckily Tommy was at school. He might have been killed
.
In most cases might is used as a milder and more polite form than may of as a form implying a greater degree of uncertainty:
permission
– May
I call
to my mother now? Might
I call
to my mother now? (very polite
)
Might
I take the liberty of pointing out that you have made a small mistake? (J. Joyce)
supposition
– He may come
a little later. He might come
a little later (less certain).
The Chancellor’s measures might
help towards an agreement on an incomes policy. (Moscow News).
The two forms are not opposed in the meaning of possibility due to circumstances where only may
is used, nor in the meaning of disapproval of reproach where might alone is found.
E.g.
You may find
the book at the library.
You might have considered
your parents’ feelings.
May as well (might as well, might just as well) + infinitive
is a very mild and an emphatic way of expressing an intention. It is also used to suggest of recommend an action.
E.g.
I may as well take
the child with me. (Я, пожалуй, возьму ребенка с собой. Пожалуй, будет лучше, если я возьму ребенка с собой).
You may as well give
him the letter. I might as well stay
at home tonight.
“I’ll go at six.” “That’s far too late; you might just as well not go
at all.” (Можно было бы и не ходить туда совсем).
It might have been worse
means “Things are not so bad after all.” In Russian it is rendered as: Могло бы быть и хуже
or
в конце концов дела обстоят не так уж и плохо).
He might have been a
… means ‘He might have been taken for a …’ ‘He looked as a …’
E.g.
Roy Wilson, the new doctor, was twenty-eight, large, heavy, mature and blond. He might have been
a Scandinavian sailor.
If I may say so
… has become a stereotyped phrase in which the meaning of permission is considerably weakened.
E.g.
If I may say so
, I think you have treated him very badly.
In addition to the above cases illustrating the independent use of may
, this modal verb occurs in subordinate object clauses after expressions of fear as well as in adverbial clauses of purpose and concession.
Here are some more examples from the works of the English and American literature:
E.g. Try as she might
, her poor head just wouldn’t let her think what it was she should rightly remember.(O. Wilde)
You certainly won’t. You may
freeze your nose, but you won’t be shivery cold. It’s hard and dry, you know. (F. Scott Fitzgerald)
We can compare May and Can
The use of can
and may
is parallel only in two meanings: possibility due to circumstances and permission. In these meanings, however, they are not always interchangeable for a number of various reasons.
1) Thus in the meaning of possibility due to circumstances the use of may is restricted only to affirmative sentences, whereas can
is found in all kinds of sentences.
Can
– He can find
this book at the library. Can he find this book at the library? He cannot find
this book at the library.
May
– He may find
this book at the library.
Their time reference is also different. May
refers only to the present or future: the form might is used in past-time contexts only in reported speech. Can (could)
may refer to the present, pastor future.
May
– He may find
the book at the library. I said that he might find
the book at the library.
Can
– He can find
the book at the library. He could find
the book at the library yesterday. He can find
the book at the library tomorrow.
Both could
and might
combined with the Perfect infinitive indicate that the action was not carried out in the past.
E.g.
He might have found
the book at the library.
He could have found
the book at the library.
It follows from the above that the sphere of application of can
in this meaning is wider than that of may.
2) When may
and can
express permission the difference between them is rather that of style than of meaning – may
is more formal than can
which is characteristic of colloquial English.
E.g.
May (might)
I speak
to you for a moment, professor?
Can (could)
I have
a cup of tea, mother?
May
in negative sentences expressing prohibition is uncommon.
Must
The modal verb must
has only one form it is used in present-time contexts with reference to the present of future and in combination with the Perfect infinitive it refers to the past. In past-time contexts this form is used only in reported speech, i.g. the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed with must.
Must
has the following meanings:
1) obligation
(from the speaker’s point of view)
E.g.
Any real body must have
extension in four directions: it must have Length, Breadth, Thickness, and – Duration.
In different contexts must
may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as duty or necessity.
In this meaning must
is found in affirmative and interrogative sentences and followed only by the simple infinitive.
2)
Prohibition
E.g.
He must not leave
his room for a while. (Он не должен (ему нельзя) выходить из комнаты некоторое время).
This meaning is expressed in negative sentences and must
is also followed by the simple infinitive.
3)
emphatic advice
E.g.
You must come
and see
us when you’re in London.
You must stop worrying
about your son.
You mustn’t give
another thought to what he said.
You mustn’t miss
the film. It is very interesting.
You must have
your hair cut.
It is much too long. You mustn’t cry
.
“Andy” – she spoke in a quick, low voice – “of course you must never
tell
anybody what I told you about Canby yesterday.” (F. Scott Fitzgerald)
This meaning is found in affirmative and negative sentences and is closely connected with the two above mentioned meanings.
4)
supposition implying strong probability
E.g.
Watson, we must look
upon you as a man of letters.
It must be
late as the streets are deserted.
Must
in this meaning is found only in affirmative sentences. In Russian this meaning is generally rendered by means of the attitudinal adverbs вероятно,
должно
быть.
In English this meaning may also be expressed by means of the attitudinal adverb probably.
In this meaning must
may be followed by different forms of the infinitive. If reference is made to the present, the Continuous infinitive is used with dynamic verbs.
E.g.
The book is not on the shelf. Jane must be reading
it. Let’s have something to eat. You must be starving
.
If must
is followed by the simple infinitive of dynamic verbs, it expresses obligation.
E.g.
Jane must read
the book. You must stay
here.
However, with stative verbs the simple infinitive is used to express supposition.
E.g.
He must be
over fifty.
He must know
all about it as he has read a lot on the subject.
“He must
be a Southerner, judging by those trousers,” suggested Harry mischievously. (F. Scott Fitzgerald)
Must
in combination with the Perfect Infinitive refers the action to the past.
E.g.
You must have examined
the house very carefully, to find a single pellet of paper.
It must have been
his first taste of peace for years.(A. Marshall)
The combination of must
with the Perfect Continuous infinitive indicates an action begun in the past and continued into the moment of speaking.
E.g.
It must have been raining
all the night. There are big puddles in the garden.
However, if must
is followed by a stative verb, the Perfect infinitive is used.
E.g.
He must have been
here since breakfast. He must have known
it all along.
When must
expresses supposition implying strong probability, its use is restricted in two ways:
a) It is not used with reference to the future. In this case we find attitudinal adverbs in the sentence.
E.g.
She must
really love
you to distraction. He must evidently know
all about it
b) It is not used in the interrogative or negative forms. It is found only in the affirmative form.
Must needs
denotes obligation.
E.g.
He must needs
go there. (Он непременно должен пойти туда.)
“I think you must
ask
somebody else to your party instead of Henry, Jim” (B. J. Chute)
“Yes, but I must
wash
before dinner,” Jimmy said and added, “You’re lucky. Dirt doesn’t show on you.” (B.J. Chute)
I must be going
and I must be off
both mean – it is time for me to go (in Russian – мне
пора
уходить
).
I must tell you that
… and I must say
… are stereotyped phrases in which the meaning of obligation is considerably weakened in must.
In the sentences: You must come and see me some time You must come and have a dinner with me. You must come to our party. You must come and stay with us for the weekend
and the like, the meaning of obligation in must is also weakened. Must
has become part of such sentences which are a common way of expressing invitations.
Must and May compared
Must
and may
can be compared in two meanings:
1) Both may
and must
serve to express supposition
but their use is not parallel. May
denotes supposition implying uncertainty whereas the supposition expressed by must
implies strong probability
E.g.
For all I know, he may be
an actor. His face seems so familiar. He must be
an actor. His voice carries so well. I saw him an hour ago. He may
still be
in his office now. He always comes at 10 sharp. So he must be
in his office now.
They must
be
satisfied with going to the piers… (M. Spark)
2)
May
and must
are used to express prohibition
in negative sentences. But may
is seldom found in this meaning. In negative answers to questions with may
asking for permission we generally find must not or cannot.
E.g.
‘May
I smoke
here?” “No, you mustn’t
(you can’t)
.
To have to
To have to
as a modal verb is not a defective verb and can have all the necessary finite forms as well as the verbal.
E.g
. He is an invalid and has to have
a nurse.
She knew what she had to do
.
He frightened her – I had
to yield
him my last date before Bill came. (F.
I shall have to
reconsider my position.
He is always having to exercise
judgment.
My impression was that he was having to
force himself to talk.
I have had to remind
you of writing to her all this time.
The women at barfed had had to be told
that an experiment was taking place that day. “As a matter of fact,” he said, “I’ve been having to spend
some time with the research people.”
It wouldn’t have been very nice for the David’s sons to have to mix
with all those people in the smoking-room.
Having to work
alone, he wanted all his time for his research.
The interrogative and negative forms of the modal verb to have to
are built up by means of the auxiliary verb to do.
E.g.
Why do I have to do
everything?
Did
he have to
tell them about it?
“That is all right,” she said. “I just thought I’d ask. You don’t have to explain
.”
There was a grim on his face. He did not have to tell
me that he already knew.
The verb to have to
serves to express obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances.
It is rendered is Russian as приходится,
вынужден
.
In this meaning it is found in all kinds of sentences – affirmative, interrogative and negative – and is combined only with the simple infinitive.
E.g.
I am afraid you will have to go
to the court.
They will have
him back. (Они заставят его вернуться)
Did
he have to do
it? He did not have to do
it.
If you go abroad, no matter how you are traveling, you have
to go
through the customs. (M. Spark)
The negotiations might fail. In that event the Government would have to
decide
what to do. (Morning star)
I have to revise other ideas about her. (F. Scott Fitzgerald0
In negative sentences to have to
denotes absence of necessity.
E.g.
You don’t have to go
there. (Вам нет необходимости идти туда).
You mustn’t go
there. (Вам нельзя идти туда).
In spoken English the meaning of obligation and necessity is also expressed by have (has) got to
. Like the verb to have to
it is found in all kinds of sentences and is combined with the simple infinitive.
E.g.
He has got to go
right now.
Has
he got to go
right now?
He hasn't got to go
just yet.
This combination may also be found in the past tense, though it is not very common.
E.g.
He had got to sell
his car.
A few drops begun to fall “We’d
better
take shelter,’ she said. (Нам лучше укрыться).
She didn’t like to say that she thought they had better
not play cards when the guest might come in at any moment.
Had better
is followed by the infinitive without to
.
We can compare the usage of this verb in American and British literature:
You’ve got
to be kidding – American English.
You’ve got
to be joking – British English.
To be to
To be to
as a modal verb is used in the present and past tenses.
E.g.
We are to meet
at six.
We were to meet
at six.
To be to
as a modal verb has the following meanings:
1) a previously arranged plan or obligation
resulting from the arrangement
E.g.
We are to discuss
it the following week.
Is
he to arrive
tomorrow?
Who was to speak
at the meeting?
Mass struggle is vital if the elimination of the evils of racial hatred is
to be
guaranteed.(Daily Worker)
This meaning of to be to
is found in affirmative and interrogative sentences in the present and past tenses. To be to
is followed by the simple infinitive.
The past tense of the verb to be to
in combination with the Perfect infinitive denotes an unfulfilled plan.
E.g.
I promised to go to a club with her last Tuesday, and I really forgot all about it. We were to have played
a duet together.
2) orders and instructions
, often official (frequently in reported speech).
E.g.
I just mention it because you said I was to give
you all the details I could.
Norman says I am to leave
you alone. All junior officers are to report
to the colonel at once.
The Prime Minister is to go
to Paris next week. (Daily Worker, London)
In this meaning to be to
is found is affirmative and negative sentences and followed by the simple infinitive.
3)
something that is destined to happen
E.g
. He was to be
my teacher and friend for many years to come.
He did not know at the time that he was
never to see
his native place again.
How was
I to know
that I was going to meet a raging beauty?
It has been a great blow to me that you haven’t been able to follow me in my business as I followed by father. Three generations, that would have been. But it wasn’t to be
.
This meaning of to be to
is rendered in Russian as сужд
ено
. It is mainly found in the past tense and its application is limited to narration. It occurs in affirmative and negative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive.
4)
Possibility
E.g.
Her father was
often to be seen
in the bar of the Hotel Metropole.
Where is
he to be found
?
Nothing was to be done
under the circumstances.
Responsibilities and obligations possessed by the Soviet trade unions are to
be
envied. (Morning Star)
In this meaning to be to
is equivalent to can or may. It is used in all kinds of sentences in the present and past tenses and is followed by the passive infinitive.
Here are some examples taken from the literary works:
‘Tell him to go to sleep’. – ‘She says you’re
to go to sleep’. (D.H. Lawrence).
I could scarcely see her in the darkness, but when I rose to go – it was plain that I was
not
to
linger – she stood in the orange light from the doorway. (F Scott Fitzgerald)
Must, to have to and to be to Compared.
The verbs must
, to have
to
and to be to
have one meaning in common, that of obligation. In the present tense the verbs come very close to each other in their use, though they preserve their specific shades of meaning. Thus must
indicates obligation or necessity from the speaker’s viewpoint, i.e. it expresses obligation imposed by the speaker.
E.g.
I must do
it. (I want to do it).
He must do
it himself.
To have to expresses obligation or necessity imposed by circumstances.
E.g.
What a pity you have to go
now (It is time for you to catch you train).
He has to do
it himself. (He has got no one to help him).
To be to
expresses obligation or necessity resulting from an arrangement.
E.g.
We are to wait for them at the entrance. (We have arranged to meet there, so we must wait form them at the appointed place).
Sometimes the idea of obligation is absent and to be to
expresses only a previously arranged plan.
E.g.
We are to go
the cinema tonight.
In the past tense, however, the difference in the use of the three verbs is quite considerable.
Must
has no past tense. It is used in past-time contexts only in reported speech.
E.g.
He said he must do
it himself.
Had to + infinitive
is generally used to denote an action which was realized in the past as a result of obligation or necessity imposed by circumstance.
E.g.
I had to sell
my car. (It was necessary for me to do it because I needed money).
He had to put
on his raincoat. (It was raining hard outside and he would have got wet if he had not).
Was (were) to + infinitive
is used to denote an action planned for the future which is viewed from the past. The action was no realized in the past and the question remains open as to whether it is going to take place.
E.g.
We were to meet
him at the station. (It is not clear from the sentence if the action will take place).
If the speaker wishes to make it clear at once that the plan was not fulfilled, the Perfect infinitive is used to show that.
E.g.
We were to have met
him t the station. (That means that we failed to meet him).
However, the simple infinitive may also be used in this case.
In reported speech (in past-time contexts) must
remains unchanged in all of its meanings.
E.g.
He said he must do
it without delay.
He said I mustn’t tell
anyone about it.
The doctor told her that she must eat
.
They believed the story must be true
.
Parallel to must
, had to + infinitive
is also used occasionally in reported speech to express obligation.
E.g.
He said he had to make
a telephone call at once.
In this case had to
is close to must
in meaning: it does not include the idea of a realized action but refers to some future moment.
Ought to
The modal verb ought to
has only one form which is used “with reference to the present of future. In reported speech it remains unchanged. Ought
is always followed by the infinitive with to
.
Ought to
has the following meanings:
1) obligation
, which in different contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as advisability
and desirability,
E.g.
You ought to
say a word or two about yourself.
Ought
she to warn
him?
He oughtn’t to mention
it to anybody.
“It doesn’t mean you ought
to marry a Yankee.” He persisted.(F. Scott Fitzgerald)
In this meaning ought to
is possible in all kinds of sentences, though it is felt to be awkward in questions where should is
preferred.
Generally ought to
refers an action to the future and is followed by the simple infinitive. With reference to the present ought to
is used with the continuous infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb is stative.
E.g.
At your age you ought to be earning
your living.
You ought to feel
some respect for your elders.
It was getting darker and darker – all those tomb-stones ought to be repainted, sure enough, only that would spoil them, of course. (F. Scott Fitzgerald).
“If you care for him you certainly oughtn’t to belittle yourself in front of him,” said Ailie in a flash, her head high. (F. Scott Fitzgerald)
In combination with the perfect infinitive ought to
in the affirmative form shows that a desirable action was no fulfilled.
E.g.
You ought to have chosen
a more suitable time to tell me this news.
In the negative form ought to
in combination with the Perfect Infinitive shows that an undesirable action was fulfilled
E.g.
I’m sorry. I ought to have said
it.
You oughtn’t to have married
her, David. It was a great mistake.
2)
supposition implying strong probability.
E.g.
Oughtn’t
you to go
and have your tiffin?
The of ought to
in this case is not very common as this meaning is normally rendered by must
: He/You ought to know it
(=he is/you are supposed to know it). You ought to be ashamed of yourself.
Shall
and should
Historically, shall
and should
were two forms of the same verb expressing obligation. She was the present tense of the Indicative Mood; should
was the Subjunctive Mood. But later they came to express different meanings and in present-day English their use is not parallel – they are treated as two different verbs.
Shall
In modern English the modal meaning of obligation in shall
is always combined with the function of an auxiliary verb of the future tense.
Shall is
still used to express obligation with the second and third persons, but at present it is not common in this meaning in spoken English. Its use, as a rule, is restricted to formal or even archaic style and mainly found in subordinate clauses, i.e. it is structurally dependent.
E.g.
It has been decided that the proposal shall not be opposed.
This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not
, by way of trade, be lent, resold, hired out
or otherwise disposed of
without the publisher’s consent.
At present, however, this meaning of obligation, somewhat modified, is found with the second and third persons in sentences expressing promise, threat or warning. It is used in affirmative and negative sentences and combined with the simple infinitive.
E.g.
You shall have
my answer tomorrow.
“You shall stay
just where you are!” his mother cried angrily
He shall do
as I say.
The meaning of obligation may also be traced in interrogative sentences where shall
is used with the first and third persons to ask after the will of the person addressed. In this case it is also followed by the simple infinitive.
E.g.
Shall
I get
you some fresh coffee, Miss Flour?
Who shall answer
the telephone, Major?
Sentences of this kind are usually rendered in Russian with the help of the infinitive: Принести
Вам
ещё
кофе?
Кому отвечать по телефону?
etc.
Should
In modern English the modal verb should
is used with reference to the present or future. It remains unchanged in reported speech.
Should
has the following meanings:
1) obligation,
which in different contexts may acquire additional shades of meaning, such as advisability
and desirability
,
E.g.
It’s late. You should go
to bed.
You shouldn’t miss
the opportunity.
Should
I talk
to him about it?
He said that the status of the Greek minority should be viewed in the light of political balance. (Moscow news)
He said that this was not a temporary problem. Lasting arrangements should be made. (W. Faulkner)
Should
in this meaning is found in all kinds of sentences. Like ought to it generally refers an action to the future and followed by the simple infinitive.
With reference to the resent should is used with the Continuous Infinitive or with the simple infinitive if the verb is stative.
E.g.
You shouldn’t be sitting
in home. Move out of it into the garden.
You shouldn’t feel
so unhappy over such trifles.
Should
may be combined with the Perfect Infinitive. In this case the meaning of the combination depends on whether the sentence is affirmative or negative. In an affirmative sentence should + Perfect
Infinitive
indicates that a desirable action was not carried out.
E.g.
He looks very ill. He should have
stayed at home.
He should have told
me about it himself.
In a negative sentence should + Perfect Infinitive
serves to show that an undesirable action was carried out.
E.g.
Oh, John, you shouldn’t have done
as you did.
They shouldn’t have concealed
it from us.
2) supposition
implying strong probability
,
E.g.
The film should be
very good as it is starring first-class actors.
The use of should
in this case does not seem to be very common as this meaning is usually rendered by must
.
In addition to the above mentioned cases showing the independent use of should
this verb occurs in certain object clauses where it depends on the lexical character of the predicate verb in the principal clause and in adverbial clauses of condition, purpose and concession.
E.g.
I suggest hat you should stay
here as if nothing had happened.
“It’s important,” I broke out, “that the people should know
what we’ve just heard.”
She was terrified lest they should goon
talking about her.
Should
may have a peculiar function - it may be used for emotional coloring. In this function it may be called the emotional
should.
The use of the emotional should
is structurally dependent.
It is found in the following cases:
1) In special emphatic constructions where a simple predicate is not used:
a) in rhetorical questions
beginning with why,
E.g.
Why should I do it? (С какой стати я буду это делать?)
Why shouldn't
you invite
him? (Почему бы Вам его не пригласить?)
b) in object clauses beginning with why
,
E.g.
I don’t know why he should want
to see him (Я не знаю зачем он ему нужен)
I don’t see why we shouldn’t make
friends.
c) in attributive clauses
beginning with why
after the noun reason
,
E.g.
There is no reason why they shouldn’t get on very well together (Нет причины почему бы им не ладить дpуг с другом).
d) in constructions
of the following kind,
E.g.
The door opened and who should come
in but Tom (Дверь открылась, и, кто бы Вы думали, вошёл? Никто иной, как Том)
As I was crossing the street, whom should
I meet
but Aunt Ann.
e) in the set phrase
How should I know?
(Почём я знаю?) In the above cases should
may be followed by the Perfect infinitive which in simple sentences refers the action to the past and in complex sentences shows that the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause.
E.g.
I went into business with her as her partner. Why shouldn’t I have done it?
(Почему бы мне не сделать это?)
He didn’t know why he should have expected
them to look different (Он не знал почему ожидал увидеть их с другими).
2) In certain types of subordinate clauses where should + infinitive
is interchangeable with a simple predicate in the Indicative Mood:
a) in object clauses after expressions of regret, surprise, sometimes pleasure or displeasure,
E.g.
I‘m sorry that you should think
so badly of me (Мне жаль, что Вы так плохо обо мне думаете).
He was little surprise that Ann should speak
so frankly about it.
I’m content that you should think
so.
The rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here. The Perfect infinitive is used to show that the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause.
E.g.
I am sorry that you should have had
a row with Kate about it.
He was annoyed that they should have asked
him that.
b) in object clauses following the principal clause with it as a formal subject,
E.g.
It is absurd that such things should happen
to a family like theirs (Нелепо, чтобы такие вещи случались в такой семье, как их).
In the principal clause we find such expressions as it is wonderful (absurd, monstrous, natural, odd, queer, singular, strange, terrible
and the like), it infuriated, (outraged, puzzled, startled, surprised
and the like) me, it struck me as funny,
etc.
We also find he following interrogative expressions in the principal clause: is it possible (likely, probable)? , it is not possible (likely, probable), it is impossible (improbable, unlikely).
As we see from the above examples, the rules of the sequence of tenses are not observed here either.
If the action of the subordinate clause precedes that of the principal clause, the Perfect infinitive is used after should
.
E.g.
It is inconceivable that Mrs. C. should have written
such a letter.
It is much better that you should have found
everything out
before it’s too late.
c) in constructions
of the following kind,
E.g.
That it should come
to this! (И до чего дело дошло!)
To think that it should come
to this! (Подумать только, до чего дело дошло!)
To think that it should have happened
to me! (Подумать только, что это произошло со мной!)
Some literary examples:
It is good that the Government should
have recognized the opportunity and the obligations so clearly. (E. Hermingway)
To sum it up, it should be said that as compared to the use of a simple predicate in the Indicative Mood, the use of should + infinitive
gives the statement emotional coloring such as surprise, amazement, irritation, indignation, pleasure, displeasure etc, i.e. it emphasizes the speaker’s personal attitude towards the facts stated in the sentence. The Indicative Mood represents these acts in a more matter-of-fact way.
Must, should and ought to compared.
All the three verbs serve to express obligation. Must,
however, sounds more forceful, peremptory.
E.g. You must do it at once (Вы должны сделать это немедленно!).
Both should
and ought to
express obligation, advisability and desirability and are used when must
would sound too peremptory.
E.g.
You should do /ought to do/
it at once (Вам следует/надо/нужно сделать это немедленно).
Should
and ought to
are very much alike in meaning and are often interchangeable. In using ought to
, however, we lay more stress on the meaning of moral obligation, whereas should
is common in instruction and corrections.
E.g.
You ought to help
him; he is in trouble.
You should use
the definite article in this sentence.
Must, ought to
and should
serve to express supposition implying strong probability. Must
, however, seems to be in more frequent use than the other two verbs.
Should
+ Perfect Infinitive
, ought to
+ Perfect Infinitive
and was, were
to
+ Perfect Infinitive
compared.
Should + Perfect infinitive
and ought to + Perfect infinitive
show that the action has not been carried out though it was desirable; was/were to +
Perfect infinitive
indicate an action that has not been carried out though it was planned.
E.g. You should have helped
him.
You ought to have warned
him (Now she is in trouble).
He was to have arrived
last week (but his plans were upset by some cause or other).
Will
The verb will
has the following forms: will
– the present tense and would
– the past tense. The latter form is used in two ways:
a) in past-time context to express an actual fact and
b) in present-time context to express unreality or as a milder and more polite form of will
.
Will
and would
may also be used as verbs of full predication (not modal verbs). Will
may be used as a regular verb (wills, willed).
It means проявлять волю, заставлять, внушать.
Would s a defective verb. It is used with reference to the present and means “ желать
”. It is found mainly in poetry and like the verb to wish is followed by an object clause: I would I were a careless child.
While shall
and should
are treated as two different verbs in modern English, will
and would
are considered to be the forms of the same verb, its original meaning being that of volition
(Volition is a general term which includes such meanings as willingness, readiness, consent, intention and determination to perform an action). However, in some of their meanings the use of will
is parallel only to would
which denotes an actual fact in the past; in other meanings will
is found alongside would
which expresses unreality in the present or serves as a milder or more polite form of will
.
The use of will
and would
which denotes an actual fact in the past is parallel in the following cases:
1) when they express habitual
or recurrent actions
,
E.g.
She will (would) sit for hours under the old oak tree looking at the beautiful country around her (…любит/любила сидеть, обычно сидит/сидела …)
In addition to indicating an habitual action, will (would)
in this case implies willingness, personal interest on the part of the doer of the action. Will (would)
in this meaning is found in affirmative sentences and is followed by he simple infinitive.
In present-time context will
in this meaning is not common. In past-time context would
is mainly characteristic of literary style.
E.g. Then there were weekends when he would ride
over to the house of one farmer or another and spend
a couple of nights on the hills.
2) when they express refusal to perform
an action,
E.g.
The doctor knows I won’t be operated
on.
He was wet through but he wouldn’t change
.
“Clark,” she said softly, “I wouldn’t
change
you for the world”. (F. Scott Fitzgerald)
This meaning is found in negative sentences; will (would)
is followed by the simple infinitive. In Russian it is usually rendered as никак
не
хочу,
ни
за
что
не
хотел.
3)
when they are used with lifeless things to show hat a thing fails to perform its immediate function,
E.g.
My fountain pen won’t (wouldn’t)
write.
The door won’t (wouldn’t)
open.
In this meaning will (would)
is found in negative sentences and is followed by the simple infinitive. In Russian it is usually rendered as никак не пишет (не писала), никак не открывается (не открывалась)
and the like.
4)
when they are used with the first person to express will, intention or determination,
E.g.
“Damn it!” he thought, “I’m going to get out of this hole. I will make
money. I am an Englishman and I will suffer
no priest to interfere in my business”.
“I said I would do
anything for him. We decided that we wouldn’t interfere”.
This meaning is found in affirmative and negative sentences. The present tense will,
in addition to expressing its modal meaning, serves to refer an action to the future; the past tense would
is generally used in reported speech and also serves to refer an action to the future but in this case it is viewed from a past moment.
The use of will
and would
which expresses unreality in the present or serves as a milder or more polite form of will
is parallel in the following cases:
1) in interrogative sentences where they express willingness, consent
,
E.g.
Will
you dine
with me tomorrow, Lewis?
“Won’t
you sit
down”? said doctor.
You’ll forgive
me, won’t you?
2) in clauses of condition introduced by if
where they also express willingness, consent,
E.g.
“It’s about forty minutes’ walk from ere and if you’ll come
now I’ll go with you” he said.
No, we are not going to quarrel at all if you’ll
only let
me talk.
Mr. Marlowe? If you will
come
this way, please? (R. Chandler) (Сюда, пожалуйста!)
In both cases will (would) is followed by the simple infinitive and the action always refers to the future.
Both interrogative and conditional sentences are often actually polite requests in this case. There is hardly any difference between the use of will
and would
here; the role of would
is to make the request still more polite.
The use of will
and would
is not parallel in the following cases:
1) Will
may be used to express supposition with reference to; the present or to the future in combination with the simple infinitive, or to the past in combination with the Perfect infinitive. This meaning is found with the second and third persons.
E.g.
This will be
the school, I believe.(Это, по-видимому, и есть школа).
You will have heard
the news, I’m sure (Я полагаю, Вы уже слышали новость).
It should be noted that the use of will
in this meaning is not common.
2) Would
may be used rather sarcastically to express that something was to be expected. It is found in affirmative and negative sentences.
E.g. “Auntie Meg has been very brave”. “Yes, she would be
brave”. (That was to be expected of her under the circumstances).
“I don’t understand him and I don’t approve of is decision”. “No, you wouldn’t
”. (I did not expect you would).
The law wouldn’t
call it a murder if I shot a thief entering my house by force. (W. De Mille)
This meaning can be rendered in Russian as Этого
и
следовало
ожидать.
3) Note the use of will in the following sentences, e.g.:
Boys will be
boys. (Мальчишки остаются мальчишками).
Accidents will happen.
4) phrases with will
and would
:
a) Will not have (won’t have) followed by an object and an infinitive without to
means “I’ll see to it that it does not happen”.
E.g. “I will not (won’t) have you speak to me like that, her voice came sharply.
b) Both would rather (‘d rather)
and would sooner (‘d sooner)
followed by an infinitive without to
mean ‘to prefer’.
E.g.
“I’d rather do
it myself” he said .
He’d sooner die
than let me think he was a failure.
c) Would … mind
in interrogative sentences may also express a polite request: Would
you mind
getting me a cup of tea?
Would
also occurs in certain subordinate clauses where it is structurally dependent.
E.g.
I wish the train would stop
for a moment.
I wish they wouldn’t insist
on it.
This modal verb will – would
is more often used in literature. Here are several examples on its usage.
E.g. Senor Montevalde had never faced a bull without the protection of a stout fence, and never would
. (F. Harvey)
This Velma was an entertainer, a singer. You wouldn’t
know
her? I don’t suppose you went there much.(R. Chandler)
Look where we would
there was no rock or tree (O. Wilde).
“I’ll speak to her and tell her to lay off.” – “If you would
.” (A. Christie) (Будьте любезны!)
“And what would
you be
doing
, my dears?” she said. “What brings you to Gipsy’s Acre?” (A. Christie) (Что бы это вы могли тут делать…..)
Sometimes the boys would
play a trick on their teacher (M. Spark).
It would be impossible to build a bridge without knowing it.(W. Faulkner)
Need
The modal verb need
may be used either as a defective or as a regular verb.
1) As a defective one need
has only one form, which is the present tense. In reported speech it remains unchanged. It is followed by the infinitive without to
.
Need
expresses necessity. When reference is made to the present or future it is followed by the simple infinitive. It is used in negative and interrogative sentences. In interrogative sentences need
usually implies that there is no necessity of performing the action.
E.g.
You needn’t be
afraid of me.
You need not meet
him unless you’d like to. Need
I repeat
it?
Occasionally it may be found in affirmative sentences but it is not typical.
In negative sentences it is not always the verb need
that is in the negative form; the negation may be found elsewhere in the sentence.
E.g.
I don’t think
we need give
her any more of our attention. I need
hardly say
that I agree with you.
In combination with the Perfect infinitive need
express an action which has been performed though it was unnecessary. It implies a waste of time or effort.
E.g.
You needn’t have come
. The deal is off.
It was obvious. You needn’t have protested
. We needn’t have told
him a lie even if we didn’t want to tell him the truth.
2) As a regular verb need can have all the necessary forms including the verbal. It also expresses necessity. It is followed by the infinitive with to
and is mainly used in interrogative and negative sentences (like the defective need
).
E.g.
He didn’t need
to explain
.
You don’t need to tell
me that you are sorry.
Did
you need to read
all those books?
It should be noted that this need
is in more common use than the defective one, particularly in American English.
E.g. He needs
a new coat.
Does
he need
my help? He does not need
anything.
Dare
The modal verb dare
may also be used as a regular and as a defective verb.
1) Dare
as a defective verb has two forms which are the present and the past forms. It means ‘to have the courage or impertinence to do something’ Its use is very restricted. In present-day English it is mainly found in questions beginning with how
which are actually exclamations and in negative sentences.
E.g.
How dare
you say
that!
How dare
she come
here!
How many years is it since we danced together? I dare not think
.
He dared not look
at her.
2) Dare
as a regular verb has all the necessary forms including the verbal. It has he same meaning as the defective dare
. Its use is also restricted. It is mainly found in negative sentences.
E.g.
He does not dare to come
here again.
She told me she had
never dared to ask
him about it.
No one dared to live
in the house since.
3)
I dare say.
E.g.
I dare say
I looked a little confused.
My son is not in town but I dare say
he will be before long.
In Russian this phrase is usually rendered as очень
возможно,
пожалуй,
полагаю,
осмелюсь
сказать.
Shouldn’t
+ Perfect Infinitive , oughtn’t to
+ Perfect Infinitive
and needn’t
+ Perfect Infinitive
compared
Shouldn’t + Perfect infinitive
and oughtn’t to + Perfect infinitive
show that an action has been carried out though it was undesirable
; needn’t
+ Perfect infinitive
indicates that an action has been carried out though it was unnecessary
.
E.g.
You shouldn’t have come
(for you are ill);
You oughtn’t to have written
to them (because your letter upsets
);
You needn’t have come
(as the work is finished
);
You needn’t have written
to them (because I sent them a telegram
).
Final conclusion
I will formulate few basic grammatical rules applying to modal verbs:
1. All verbs are NEVER used with other auxiliary verbs such as do, does, did
etc. The negative is formed simply by adding “not” after the verb; questions are formed by inversion of the verb and subject.
2. Modal verbs NEVER change form: you can never add an “-s” or
“-ed”, for example.
3. Modal verbs are NEVER followed by to, with the exception of ought
to.
4. Modal verbs are used in conversation. In the past it is possible to find
them only in reported speech. The only exceptions are the Past Tense
forms could, would, had, was and might which maybe used not only
in conversations but also in narration.
So, as you can see there are in Modern English these modal verbs: ought to, must, shall, should, will, need, dare: to have and to be can also be used as modal verbs. May
express possibility/high probability (97%) and permission (3%). The modals used to express permission are can
(58%), may
(16%), could
(13%), and might
(13%), could
(17%), will
(17%). The three most frequent modals are would
(28% of all modal occurrences), could
(17%), and will
(17%).
Bibliography
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2. “Грамматика английского языка. Пособие для студентов педагогических институтов.” Под ред. Ильиша.
3. “Learn to read science”. Н.И. Шахова и др. “Наука”, 1980.
4. “The English verb. A new grammar for every one”. А.К. Кравченко, Л.В. Ушакова и др. Иркутск, 1997.
5. “Modality in Modern English”. Е.М. Гордон и др. М., 1968.
6. “Модальные глаголы в английском языке”. Е.А. Зверева.
7. “Составные глаголы в современном английском языке”. М.Д. Кузнецов и др. М., 1959.
8. “Пособие по морфологии английского языка”. Е.А. Корнеева. М. “Высшая школа”, 1974.
9. “Модальные глаголы в английской речи: учебное пособие для студентов институтов и факультетов иностранных языков”. А.П. Грызулина. М., “Высшая школа”, 1986.
10. “Английский глагол”. Т.А. Расторгуева, И.П. Верховская и др. М., 1987.
11. “Очерки по сопоставительной грамматике русского и английского языков”. А.И. Смирницкий. М., “Высшая школа”, 1975.
12. “Морфология английского языка”. А.И. Смирницкий. М., 1959.
13. “Наклонения английского языка”. М.В. Смолина. М., 1977.
14. “Учебник английского языка”. Е.К. Старщникова и др. М., 1979.
15. “Английский язык для студентов старших курсов”. Г.А. Попова и др. М., 1961.
16. “Учебник английского языка”. С.В. Понтович. М., 1960.
17. “Трудности перевода общественно-политического текста с английского на русский”. Т.А. Зражевская, Т.И. Гуськова. М., 1986.
18. “Новое в английской грамматике”. Г.А. Вейхман. М., 1990.
19. “Учебник английского языка”. Т.И. Арбекова, А.Д. Бодрова. М., 1968.
Цитируемые
произведения:
1.“The time machine”. Herbert G. Wells.
2.“The Painted Veil”. W. Somerset Maugham.
3.“His Last Bow”. Arthur Conan Doyle.
4. “The Fun They Had”. I. Asimov.
5. “The Green Door”. O. Henry..
6. “The Ice Palace”. F. Scott Fitzgerald.
7. “Donkey”. A. Marshall.
8. “Essential English”. C. Eckersley.
9. “You Should Have Seen the Mess”. M. Spark.
10. “The Witness For The Prosecution”. A. Christie.
11. “The Portrait of Dorian Gray”. O. Wilde.
12. “Ruthless”. W. De Mille.
13. “The Birthday Present”. B.J. Chute.
14. “The Bear”. W. Faulkner.
15. “Evelyne”. J. Joyce.
16. “The Cat in the Rain”. E. Hemingway.
Newspapers:
1. “Morning Star”;
2. “Moscow News”;
3. “Daily Worker”.