РефератыИностранный языкTeTelecommunications Essay Research Paper TelecommunicationsThe transmission of

Telecommunications Essay Research Paper TelecommunicationsThe transmission of

Telecommunications Essay, Research Paper


Telecommunications


The transmission of words, sounds, images, or data in the form of electronic or


electromagnetic signals or impulses. Transmission media include the telephone


(using wire or optical cable), radio, television, microwave, and satellite. Data


communication, the fastest growing field of telecommunication, is the process of


transmitting data in digital form by wire or radio. Digital data can be


generated directly in a 1/0 binary code by a computer or can be produced from a


voice or visual signal by a process called encoding. A data communications


network is created by interconnecting a large number of information sources so


that data can flow freely among them. The data may consist of a specific item of


information, a group of such items, or computer instructions. Examples include a


news item, a bank transaction, a mailing address, a letter, a book, a mailing


list, a bank statement, or a computer program. The devices used can be computers,


terminals (devices that transmit and receive information), and peripheral


equipment such as printers (see Computer; Office Systems). The transmission line


used can be a normal or a specially purchased telephone line called a leased, or


private, line (see Telephone). It can also take the form of a microwave or a


communications-satellite linkage, or some combination of any of these various


systems.


Hardware and Software


Each telecommunications device uses hardware, which connects a device to the


transmission line; and software, which makes it possible for a device to


transmit information through the line.


Hardware


Hardware usually consists of a transmitter and a cable interface, or, if the


telephone is used as a transmission line, a modulator/demodulator, or modem. A


transmitter prepares information for transmission by converting it from a form


that the device uses (such as a clustered or parallel arrangement of electronic


bits of information) to a form that the transmission line uses (such as, usually,


a serial arrangement of electronic bits). Most transmitters are an integral


element of the sending device. A cable interface, as the name indicates,


connects a device to a cable. It converts the transmitted signals from the form


required by the device to the form required by the cable. Most cable interfaces


are also an integral element of the sending device. A modem converts digital


signals to and from the modulated form required by the telephone line to the


demodulated form that the device itself requires. Modems transmit data through a


telephone line at various speeds, which are measured in bits per second (bps) or


as signals per second (baud). Modems can be either integral or external units.


An external unit must be connected by cable to the sending device. Most modems


can dial a telephone number or answer a telephone automatically.


Software


Among the different kinds of software are file-transfer, host, and network


programs. File-transfer software is used to transmit a data file from one device


to another. Host software identifies a host computer as such and controls the


flow of data among devices connected to it. Network software allows devices in a


computer network to transmit information to one another.


Applications


Three major categories of telecommunication applications can be discussed here:


host-terminal, file-transfer, and computer-network communications.


Host-Terminal


In these types of communications, one computer?the host computer?is connected to


one or more terminals. Each terminal transmits data to or receives data from the


host computer. For example, many airlines have terminals that are located at the


desks of ticket agents and connected to a central, host computer. These


terminals obtain flight information from the host computer, which may be located


hundreds of kilometers away from the agent’s site. The first terminals to be


designed could transmit data only to or from such host computers. Many terminals,


however, can now perform other functions such as editing and formatting data on


the terminal screen or even running some computer programs. Manufacturers label


terminals as “dumb,” “smart,” or “intelligent” according to their varying


capabilities. These terms are not strictly defined, however, and the same


terminal might be labeled as dumb, smart, or intelligent depending upon who is


doing the labeling and for what purposes.


File-Transfer


In file-transfer communications, two devices are connected: either two computers,


two terminals, or a computer and a terminal. One device then transmits an entire


data or program file to the other device. For example, a person who works at


home might connect a home computer to an office computer and then transmit a


document stored on a diskette to the office computer. An outgrowth of file


transfer is electronic mail. For example, an employee might write a document


such as a letter, memorandum, or report on a computer and then send the document


to another employee’s computer.


Computer-Network


In computer-network communications, a group of devices is interconnected so that


the devices can communicate and share resources. For example, the branch-office


computers of a company might be interconnected so that they can route


information to one another quickly. A company’s computers might also be


interconnected so that they can all share the same hard disk. The three kinds of


computer networks are local area networks (LAN), private branch exchange (PBX)


networks, and wide-area networks (WAN). LANs interconnect devices with a group


of cables; the devices communicate at a high speed and must be in close


proximity. A PBX network interconnects devices with a telephone switching


system; in this kind of network, the devices must again be in close proximity.


In wide-area networks, on the other hand, the devices can be at great distances


from one another; such networks usually interconnect devices by means of


telephone.


Telecommunication Services


Public telecommunication services are a relatively recent development in


telecommunications. The four kinds of services are network, information-


retrieval, electronic-mail, and bulletin-board services.


Network


A public network service leases time on a WAN, thereby providing terminals in


other cities with access to a host computer. Examples of such services include


Telenet, Tymnet, Uninet, and Datapac. These services sell the computing power of


the host computer to users who cannot or do not wish to invest in the purchase


of such equipment.


Information-Retrieval


An information-retrieval service leases time on a host computer to customers


whose terminals are used to retrieve data from the host. An example of this is


CompuServe, whose host computer is accessed by means of the public telephone


system. This and other such services provide general-purpose information on news,


weather, sports, finances, and shopping. Other information-retrieval services


may be more specialized. For example, Dow Jones News Retrieval Services provide


general-purpose information on financial news and quotations, corporate-earning


estimates, company disclosures, weekly economic survey updates, and Wall Street


Journal highlights. Newsnet provides information from about 200 newsletters in


30 different industries; Dialog Information Services, BRS Bibliographic


Retrieval Services, and Orbit Information Retrieval Services provide library


information; and Westlaw provides legal information to its users. See Database.


Electronic-Mail


By means of electronic mail, terminals transmit documents such as letters,


reports, and telexes to other computers or terminals. To gain access to these


services, most terminals use a public network. Source Mail (available through


The Source) and EMAIL (available through CompuServe) enable terminals to


transmit documents to a host computer. The documents can then be retrieved by


other terminals. MCI Mail Service and the U.S. Postal ECOM Service (also


available through The Source) let terminals transmit documents to a computer in


another city. The service then prints the documents and delivers them as hard


copy. ITT Timetran, RCA Global Communications, and Western Union Easylink let


terminals send telexes to other cities.


Bulletin-Board


By means of a bulletin board, terminals are able to facilitate exchanges and


other transactions. Many bulletin boards do not charge a fee for their services.


Users of these services simply exchange information on hobbies, buy and sell


goods and services, and exchange computer programs.


Ongoing Developments


Certain telecommunication methods have become standard in the telecommunications


industry as a whole, because if two devices use different standards they are


unable to communicate properly. Standards are developed in two ways: (1) the


method is so widely used that it comes to dominate; (2) the method is published


by a standard-setting organization. The most important organization in this


respect is the International Telecommunication Union, a specialized agency of


the United Nations, and one of its operational entities, the International


Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT). Other organizations in


the area of standards are the American National Standards Institute, the


Institute of Electrical Engineers, and the Electronic Industries Association.


One of the goals of these organizations is the full realization of the


integrated services digital network (ISDN), which is projected to be capable of


transmitting through a variety of media and at very high speeds both voice and


nonvoice data around the world in digital form.


Other developments in the industry are aimed at increasing the speed at which


data can be transmitted. Improvements are being made continually in modems and


in the communications networks. Some public data networks support transmission


of 56,000 b

its per second (bps), and modems for home use (see Microcomputer) are


capable of as much as 28,800 bps.


Introduction


When a handful of American scientists installed the first node of a new computer


network in the late 60’s, they could not know by any chance what phenomenon they


had launched. They were set a challenging task to develop and realise a


completely new communication system that would be either fully damage-resistant


or at least functional even if an essential part of it was in ruins, in case the


Third World War started. The scientists did what they had been asked to. By 1972


there were thirty-seven nodes already installed and ARPANET (Advanced Research


Projects Agency NET), as the system of the computer nodes was named, was working


(Sterling 1993). Since those “ancient times”, during which the network was used


only for national academic and military purposes (Sterling 1993), much of the


character of the network has changed. Its today users work in both commercial


and non-commercial branches and not just in academic and governmental


institutions. Nor is the network only national: it has expanded to many


countries around the world, the network has become international and in that way


it got its name. People call it Internet.


The popularity of this new phenomenon is rising rapidly, almost beyond belief.


In January 1994 there were an estimated 2 million computers linked to the


Internet. However, this is nothing compared to the number from last year’s


statistics. At the end of 1995, 10 million computers with 40-50 million users


were assumed to be connected to the network-of-networks. If it goes on like this,


most personal computers will be wired to the network at the end of this century


(Internet Society 1996).


The Internet is phenomenal in many ways. One of them is that it connects people


from different nations and cultures. The network enables them to communicate,


exchange opinions and gain information from one another. As each country has its


own national language, in order to communicate and make themselves understood in


this multilingual environment the huge number Internet users need to share a


knowledge of one particular language, a language that would function as a lingua


franca. On the Internet, for various reasons, the lingua franca is English.


Because of the large number of countries into which the Internet has spread and


which bring with them a considerable variety of languages English, for its


status of a global language, has become a necessary communication medium on the


Internet. What is more, the position of English as the language of the network


is strengthened by the explosive growth of the computer web as great numbers of


new users are connecting to it every day.


Internet, in computer science, an open interconnection of networks that enables


connected computers to communicate directly. There is a global, public Internet


and many smaller-scale, controlled-access internets, known as enterprise


internets. In early 1995 more than 50,000 networks and 5 million computers were


connected via the Internet, with a computer growth rate of about 9 percent per


month.


Services


The public Internet supports thousands of operational and experimental services.


Electronic mail (e-mail) allows a message to be sent from one computer to one or


more other computers. Internet e-mail standards have become the means of


interconnecting most of the world’s e-mail systems. E-mail can also be used to


create collaborative groups through the use of special e-mail accounts called


reflectors, or exploders. Users with a common interest join a mailing list, or


alias, and this account automatically distributes mail to all its members. The


World Wide Web allows users to create and use point-and-click hypermedia


presentations. These documents are linked across the Internet to form a vast


repository of information that can be browsed easily. Gopher allows users to


create and use computer file directories. This service is linked across the


Internet to allow other users to browse files. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)


allows users to transfer computer files easily between host computers. This is


still the primary use of the Internet, especially for software distribution, and


many public distribution sites exist. The Usenet service allows users to


distribute news messages automatically among thousands of structured newsgroups.


Telnet allows users to log in to another computer from a remote location. Simple


Network Management Protocol (SNMP) allows almost any Internet object to be


remotely monitored and controlled.


Connection


Internets are constructed using many kinds of electronic transport media,


including optical fiber, telephone lines, satellite systems, and local area


networks. They can connect almost any kind of computer or operating system, and


they are self-aware of their capabilities. An internet is usually implemented


using international standards collectively called Transmission Control


Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The protocols are implemented in software


running on the connected computer. Most computers connected to the internet are


called hosts. Computers that route data, or data packets, to other computers are


called routers. Networks and computers that are part of the global Internet


possess unique registered addresses and obtain access from Internet service


providers. There are four ways to connect to the public Internet: by host,


network, terminal, or gateway access. Host access is usually done either with


local area networks or with the use of telephone lines and modems combined with


Internet software on a personal computer. Host access allows the attached


computer to fully interact with any other attached computer?limited only by the


bandwidth of the connection and the capability of the computer. Network access


is similar to host access, but it is usually done via a leased telephone line


that connects to a local or wide area network. All the attached computers can


become Internet hosts. Terminal access is usually done via telephone lines and


modems combined with terminal-emulation software on a personal computer. It


allows interaction with another computer that is an Internet host. Gateway


access is similar to terminal access but is provided via on-line or similar


proprietary services, or other networks such as Bitnet, Fidonets, or UUCP nets


that allow users minimally to exchange e-mail with the Internet.


Development


The Internet technology was developed principally by American computer scientist


Vinton Cerf in 1973 as part of a United States Department of Defense Advanced


Research Projects Agency (DARPA) project managed by American engineer Robert


Kahn. In 1984 the development of the technology and the running of the network


were turned over to the private sector and to government research and scientific


agencies for further development. Since its inception, the Internet has


continued to grow rapidly. In early 1995, access was available in 180 countries


and there were more than 30 million users. It is expected that 100 million


computers will be connected via the public Internet by 2000, and even more via


enterprise internets. The technology and the Internet have supported global


collaboration among people and organizations, information sharing, network


innovations, and rapid business transactions. The development of the World Wide


Web is fueling the introduction of new business tools and uses that may lead to


billions of dollars worth of business transactions on the Internet in the future.


In the Internet nowadays, the majority of computers are from the commercial


sphere (Vrabec 1996). In fact, the commercialisation of the network, which has


been taking place during the last three or four years, has caused the recent


boom of the network, of the WWW service in particular (Vrabec 1996). It all


started in the network’s homeland in 1986, when ARPANET was gradually replaced


by a newer and technologically better built network called NSFNET. This network


was more open to private and commercial organisations (Vrabec 1996) which,


realising the potential of the possible commercial use of the Internet, started


to connect themselves to the network.


There are several possibilities how commercial organisations can benefit from


their connection to the English-speaking Internet. Internet users are supposed


to be able to speak and understand English, and actually most of them do. With


the rapidly rising number of users, the network is a potential world market


(Vrabec 1996) and English will be its important tool. The status of English as a


world language, or rather its large number of people who are able to process and


use information in English, already enables commercial organisations to present


themselves, their work and their products on the Internet. Thanks to English and


the Internet companies can correspond with their partners abroad, respond to any


question or give advice on any problem that their international customers can


have with their products almost immediately (Vrabec 1996). Considering the fact


that many of the biggest, economically strongest and influential organisations


are from the USA or other native English speaking countries, the


commercialisation has very much reinforced the use of English on the Internet.


BIBLIOGRAPHY:


Cepek, Ales and Vrabec, Vladimir 1995 Internet CZ, Praha, Grada Demel, Jiri


1995 Internet pro zacatecniky, Praha, NEKLAN Falk, Bennett 1994 InternetROADMAP,


translated by David Kr?sensk?, Praha, Computer Press Jenkins, Simon 1995 “The


Triumph Of English” The Times, May 1995 Philipson, Robert 1992 Linguistic


imperialism, Oxford, Oxford University Press Schmidt, Jan 1996 “Carka , hacek a


WWW” Computer Echo Vol. 3/6 (also available on http://omicron.felk.cvut.cz/~


comecho/ce/journal.html) Sterling, Bruce 1993 “A short history of the Internet”


The magazine Of Fantasy And Science Fiction, Feb. 1993 Vrabec, Vladimir 1996


“Komerce na Internetu” LanCom, Vol. 4/3

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