Nationalism Notes Essay, Research Paper
NATIONALISM AND
NATIONAL MOVEMENTS: 1848-1871
in 1848 liberal and nationalist sentiments in Europe erupted in a series of revolutions
but the revolutions of 1848, after a brief moment of success, ultimately failed
liberals throughout Europe proved unable to establish and consolidate political power,
and conservatives in the end retained control of most states
but national feeling grew more intense after 1848
by 1871 both Italy and Germany came into being as new nation-states
the United States, in the early 1860s, was torn apart by a prolonged and bloody civil
war, which was in part fought over different concepts of nationhood
Canada came into being in 1867 by a British act of parliament, but the new state faced
the problem of having to integrate French and English elements with widely different
traditions
Japan faced the problem of attempting to adopt Western industrialism with
extraordinary speed without losing its own identity
it was a new age-of revolutions, limited wars, changing ideologies, and nation-building
The Revolutions of 1848
Metternich had feared that revolution in one European state would inspire other
uprisings
he had special fears for the multi-national Austrian Empire, and he attempted to
suppress the national aspirations of all groups
Metternich s fears were justified by events
when a revolution did break out, it usually sparked others
1848 was the most revolutionary year in the history of the West
only England and Russia escaped serious uprisings in 1848
in 1848 a revolution in France once again gave the lead to Europe
discontent mounted both among the lower middle class and the growing body of
workers
opposition to the regime arose particularly among republicans who sought
participation for more people in the political life of the nation
the pattern of revolution, established in 1789, was repeated
all the revolutionaries agreed on a republican form of government, and a provisional
government was established until elections could be held in April
the February Revolution in France raised the hopes of nationalists and liberals all over
Europe
within a month the Austrian Empire was shaken by national and liberal uprisings
throughout the Italian peninsula people rose in revolt
other peoples in the Austrain Empire soon demanded national autonomy
the Vienna revolution was at first successful
in the German states revolution was directed against Austria, the state which had the
most to lose from German unification
the German nationalist revolutionaries turned to Prussia for leadership
the revolutionary forces varied in their composition from one area to another
in Paris workers joined with intellectuals
in Vienna students and intellectuals led the way
in Hungary the revolutionaries were aristocrats who fought for autonomy from Austria
in Italy some members of all classes supported insurrections and backed the attempt of
Piedmont to unite Italy
in the German states 1848 was, as one historian has called it, a revolution of the
intellectuals
by mid-1848 Europe was convulsed by revolutions; a year later, most of these
revolutionary movements had failed
one reason for this failure was the inability of the revolutionaries to remain united
while people could agree to overthrow the old regimes, they could not agree on the
shape of the new order
not everyone greeted revolution with joy
the professional armies of Europe often continued to support the old regime
nationalities who sought freedom and autonomy for themselves denied the same
freedom to others
as President of the Second Republic, Louis Napoleon proceeded to liquidate the
republican regime
the country voted overwhelmingly in his favour; France thus chose to have both its
second Napoleon and its Second Empire
another republican experiment had failed
in the Austrian Empire the Hapsburgs managed to regain control
one of the revolutionary outbursts had occurred in the Papal States, the territory in
Italy under the rule of the Pope
a constituent assembly was called by the revolutionaries, and in Febraury 1849
Mazzini s group proclaimed the establishment of a democratic Roman Republic
as other European states began to restore stability, they turned their attention to Rome
all Catholic areas joined forces to defeat Mazzini and restore the Pope, who returned
to Rome in 1850
Italian nationalists would never let him or the rest of Italy forget that he was brought
back by foreign troops fighting against Italians
Consequences of the Failure of 1848
if intellectuals and ideas-especially liberalism and nationalism-helped to make the
revolutions of 1848, they were also partly responsible for their failure
liberalism stood for rational discourse, freedom, and constitutional government
in 1848 it became clear that intellectuals and ideas would not by themselves make a
successful revolution
a strong current of anti-intellectualism appeared in central Europe after 1849
many, though not all, nationalists abandoned liberalism as an ideology for change and
adopted a new realistic policy
if nationalism was to succeed it could not rely on liberal methods, but must adopt a
policy of force
realism and power were viewed as the way of the future
nationalists were ready to ally with anyone who could help them achieve their ends
liberalism remained the political philosophy of the middle class and a powerful force
where that class was numerous
liberalism was particularly strong in England, France, the United States, Belgium, and
Piedmont
the working class of the Industrial Revolution often rejected the laissez-faire
economics of liberalism
labourers blamed the failure of 1848 on the middle class, and many turned from
liberalism to revolutionary socialism
the failure of the revolutions of 1848 also created a community of exiles
The Unification of Italy and Germany
what moved the great majority of people in the mid nineteenth century was not
socialism or liberalism, but nationalism
the nationalist revolts of 1848 ended in failure, but national aspirations did not
disappear; they became more intense in Italy, the German states, the Hapsburg lands,
and the Balkans
in 1850 Italy was a geographical area, not a state; Germany was a group of many
sovereignties; and Austria was an empire of many peoples
by 1871 Italy and Germany were nation-states
The Crimean War
the Crimean War of 1854-56 cleared the way for the restructuring of both Italy and
Germany
it began as a dispute over the area now known as Rumania, then under the control of
the Ottoman Empire
the Congress of Paris in 1856 arranged the peace
for the first time in centuries, Russia had lost a European war
for those with nationalist ambitions, the weakness of the conservative states of Europe
was a good omen
the growth of industry and the development of new technology resulted in the
production of new weapons, such as machine guns, which made killing more grisly and
efficient
the competition in war technology of the last half of the nineteenth century actually
began in the period after the Crimean War
Cavour and Italy
the small Italian principality of Piedmont-Sardinia joined in the Crimean War
Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-61) understood that only those who take part in a war
can particiapte in the peace
the Piedmontese slodiers fought well and Cavour earned a place at the conference
table when peace came
national unification had been a passion in the Italian peninsula since the time of
Napoleon
revolutionary secret societies committed to a republican solution began to appear in
the 1830s and 1840s
the most famous and dashing revolutionary leaders was Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-82)
he was a liberal soldier of fortune who had fought in Latin America in the 1830s and
had joined Mazzini in Rome in 1848
on the other hand, a group of Italian theologians and laymen proposed a loose
federation with the Pope at the head
Cavour was both a Piedmontese patriot and an Italian patriot
he helped to reorganize the economy on modern lines, encourage financial growth, and
stimulate the building of railways
Cavour did not think Mazzini s ideas and methods could succeed or create anything
lasting
only diplomacy and war, he believed, could bring about the national revival of Italy
the real enemy of Italy in 1848 was Austria
in July 1858 Piedmont and France signed the Pact of Plombieres, agreeing to make
war on Austria so that Lombardy and Venetia might be aaannexed to Piedmont
the agreement was limited to the unificaion of northern Italy
the first step in the plan was to provoke Austria
Austria actually declared war first on April 20, 1859
though Lombardy was annexed by Cavour, Venetia remained in the hands of Austria
in 1860 Garibaldi used the success of Piedmont in the north to unite the south
Garibaldi took control of Sicily in July 1860 and then moved on to the mainland
on September 8,
Cavour feared that Garibaldi would invade Rome
an Italian parliament met at Turin in 1861 and declared Italy a constitutional monarchy
with Victor Emmanuel as King
Cavour died in 1861 at the moment of his greatest success
his methods raised enormous problems
a war was instigated simply to further the cause of the nation-state
in 1866 Italy united with Prussia in a war against Austria, but it was unsuccessful
during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, French armies were too busy losing to
Prussia to protect Rome
not all Italians were thrilled to join the united nation-state, nor were all problems
sloved
immense poverty continued
large numbers of devout Catholics did not give their support to the liberal,
constitutional regime
Bismarck and Germany
as a result, Prussia became the centre of German nationalism
Bismarck was a Junker, a member of the Prussian aristocracy
he believed in monarchical principles and had little use for republican, liberal, or
socialist ideas
as a Prussian nationalist, he did not want German unification to submerge Prussia
he was also a realist who did not attempt to do away with the Prussian constitution; he
knew that if he went too far, he could produce a revolutionary situation
in 1864 Bismarck joined with Austria in a war against Denmark; Denmark was quickly
defeated
Bismarck used the desire for a German nation-state and Prussia s dominant economic
position to unite some of the German states against Austria
while liberals and conservatives in Prussia had different concepts of nationalism, they
were all swept along by the feeling for unity
German intellectuals were more willing to support Bismarck after the failures of 1848
Bismarck was aware of the obstacles to German unification
he realized he would have to defeat Austria and silence its claims to German leadership
in order to enable Prussia to bring about German unification
he embarked on a most extraordinary demonstration of Realpolitik
militarily, he prepared for war with Austria
diplomatically, he prepared by isolating his enemy: he brought about an alliance with
Italy; he pacified France with vague promises of territory; he hinted to Russia that
Prussia would support its Mediterranean claims; and he calculated that England would
not intervene as long as he did not challenge its empire
Bismarck wanted a short and decisive war with Austria because if it was a long one,
other powers might enter
Bismarck brought on the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 by provoking a disagreement
between Austria and Prussia over the occupation of Schleswig-Holstein
the war lasted only seven weeks and ended in a great victory for Prussia
the Seven Weeks War resulted in the creation in 1867 of the North German
Confederation
Bismarck had succeeded in creating the largest German entity since the middle ages
as a result of war and defeat, the Austrian Empire was weakened
Austria-Hungary became a dual monarchy under the Hapsburgs
Bismarck realized that if he wished to unify the rest of Germany, he must defeat
France
as he had done before, Bismarck manufactured a crisis in order to start a war
the crisis was precipitated in 1870 by the question of succession to the Spanish throne
the Franco-Prussian War, begun in July 1870, was effectively ended on September 2
with the defeat of Napoleon III at Sedan
the south German states sided with Prussia
the German armies completely shattered the French
now the balance of power had clearly shifted
before a treaty was signed with France, Bismarck took the final step in German
unification
the south German states joined the North German Confederation to create the
German Empire
The Periphery of the West: National Problems
in the decades of the 1850s and 1860s national issues were also important in some
areas outside Europe
in 1850 the United States was at the beginning of a constitution battle which
threatened its existence as a nation
tension persisted between peoples of English and French origin
Japan had been deliberately closed to outsiders for several centuries; but it was now
under pressure to change from both inside and outside forces
by 1870 the United States had gone through a civil war and survived as one entity,
Canada had come into existence as a nation, and Japan was transforming itself into a
Western state and a world power
The United States: Sectionalism, Nationalism, and Civil War
the division in the United States was over the larger question of state sovereignty
the northern portion of the country had developed industrially while the South had
become a one-crop agricultural region, relying on cotton and slavery for its prosperity
Abraham Lincoln (1809-65) came to represent those who defended a strong central
government
he was opposed to the spread of slavery into new territories as they became part of the
United States
Lincoln promised he would accept slavery as long as it was not extended
federal authorities regarded this as an act of rebellion, and civil war began
from 1861 to 1865 the United States suffered through the bloodiest war in its history
the war ended slavery in the United States and it enabled the country to survive and
grow as a single nation
Canada: Unity and Dominion Status
to the north of the United States lay a series of British colonies with origins in early
French and English settlements
Durham recommended that all Canadian-English and French-be united under one
government
in 1840 an Act of Union brought together Lower Canada, which was mainly French,
and Upper Canada, which was mainly English, into one political unit
general discussions for such a confederation were begun in 1864; the result was the
passing of the British North America Act by the British parliament in 1867
the act established a new country, the Dominion of Canada, which included Lower and
Upper Canada-Quebec and Ontario-and two of the maritime provinces-New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia
a federal parliament was established to govern the whole country, and each province
was given its own legislature
Manitoba and British Columbia joined the Confederation as provinces in 1870 and
1871, respectively; P.E.I. in 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905; and
Newfoundland, as the tenth province, in 1949
without a revolution, a group of colonies had become a state
a precedent was set by England in allowing and encouraging colonies to become a
state and run their own internal affairs
Canada remained part of the British Empire closely linked to Britain in economic,
cultural, and diplomatic affairs
Japan: Tradition vs. Westernization
Europeans knew little about Japan in 1850
Japanese society was highly traditional, so some contact with the West did occur
by 1850 there were two potent forces of change in Japan: first, domestic discontent
with policies of the shogunate; second, American and European pressures forcing
Japan into diplomatic relations with the rest of the world
treaties were soon made with the United States which opened ports for American
trade and provided for an exchange of diplomats
Japan consciously began to Westernize
though strong localisms persisted, many feudal privileges were ended, and government
became more centralized
Japan was given a constitution in 1889
economic growth was fostered by a combinatinon of government initiative and private
enterprise
the government attempted to provide political stability and a sound financial
atmosphere, and to encourage industrial development
it also sponsored railways, telegraph lines, and shipbuilding
family-business enterprises grew up and became very powerful institutions
in some enterprises Japan began to compete with the major in dustrial countries
economic growth at home was accompanied by expansion overseas
by 1905 Japan was competing successfully with European powers
in only a few decades Japan had undergone an industrial revolution
Japan was now a world power
The End of French Continental Ascendency-The New Balance of Power in 1871
Germany now became the single most important state on the European continent
it was large in territory and population, had great industrial potential, a strong armed
force, and a vibrant culture
France could no longer set the pace for the European continent
England expanded its empire; Austria-Hungary stumbled along; and Russia was held
back by slow economic development and reactionary governments
while the new Italy took its place alongside the great powers, many doubted that it
belonged there
Mazzini s dream had not come true-nationalism did not increase the harmony among
peoples, but often increased antagonism and created an atmosphere of animosity,
suspicion, and revenge
Europe became an armed camp in the name of national defence, and everyone feared
the possibility of a general European war
technology strengthened national units and gave the central governments of all states the
ability to control their hinterland