Puerto Rican And U.S. Essay, Research Paper
Most instruments designed to measure acculturation have relied on
specific cultural behaviors and preferences as primary indicators of
acculturation. In contrast, feelings of belonging and emotional
attachment to cultural communities have not been widely used. The
Psychological Acculturation Scale (PAS) was developed to assess
acculturation from a phenomenological perspective, with items
pertaining to the individual’s sense of psychological attachment to
and belonging within the Anglo-American and Latino/Hispanic cultures.
Responses from samples of bilingual individuals and Puerto Rican
adolescents and adults are used to establish a high degree of
measurement equivalence across the Spanish and English versions of the
scale along with high levels of internal consistency and construct
validity. The usefulness of the PAS and the importance of studying
acculturation from a phenomenological perspective are discussed.
Psychological acculturation refers to changes in individuals’
psychocultural orientations that develop through involvement and
interaction within new cultural systems. Rather than conceptualizing
acculturation as a process in which people lose connection to their
original culture (Gordon, 1978), new research has emphasized the
individual’s negotiation of two cultural entities (Berry, Poortinga,
Segall, & Dasen, 1992; Buriel, 1993). Responding to distinct sets of
norms from the culture of origin and the host culture, acculturating
individuals emerge with their own interpretation of appropriate
values, customs, and practices as they negotiate between cultural
contexts (Berry, 1980). People vary greatly in their abilities to
function within new cultural environments (LaFromboise, Coleman, &
Gerton, 1993) and may seek different levels of attachment to and
involvement in a host culture or their culture(s) of origin (Padilla,
1980).
To study individuals’ cultural orientations, measures of acculturation
traditionally have focused on individuals’ behaviors and behavioral
preferences and have relied heavily on language use and other
behaviors as indicators of acculturation (Marin, Sabogal, VanOss
Matin, Otero-Sabogal, & Perez-Stable, 1987; Szapocznik, Kurtines, &
Fernandez, 1980). For example, Szapocznik et al. (1980) described
acculturation as based in two primary dimensions: cultural behaviors
and values. Paralleling their conceptualization of acculturation, the
Behavioral Acculturation Scale (Szapocznik, Scopetta, Kurtines, &
Aranalde, 1978) includes items most closely related to cultural
behaviors and preferences (e.g., “What language do you speak at home?”
and “What language do you prefer to speak?”).
Similarly, Cuellar, Harris, and Jasso (1980) measured acculturation
with items pertaining primarily to cultural behaviors and values
(e.g., “What language do you prefer?”). This measure also included
several items concerning migration history (e.g., “Where were you
raised?”) and one item concerning ethnic self-identification (i.e.,
“How do you identify yourself?”). These factors can be important in
interpreting individuals’ acculturation experiences; however, rather
than assessing personal acculturation factors and sociodemographic
factors as separate concepts, Cuellar et al. (1980) combined these
items within the same measure.
We feel that this approach may be problematic in two primary ways.
First, such modes of measurement blur distinctions between factual
histories of individuals (e.g., age of arrival on the U.S. mainland)
and the assessment of individuals’ acculturative change. Second,
measures heavily based on cultural behaviors may not assess adequately
individuals’ acceptance and understanding of the values from each
culture (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993; Rogler, 1994) or grant sufficient
attention to individuals’ emotional attachments to each culture
(Estrada, 1993).
Alternatively, new instruments can be designed to measure
acculturation as it is psychologically experienced by the individual.
Reviews of the acculturation literature have identified cultural
loyalty, solidarity, identification, and comprehension as overlapping
elements of psychological responses to cultural exposure (Berry, 1980;
Betancourt & Lopez, 1993; Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1980). To assess
these psychological components of acculturation, the 10-item
Psychological Acculturation Scale (PAS) was developed. Unlike
traditional measures, the PAS targets individuals’ psychological
negotiation of two cultural entities (in this case, Anglo-American
culture and Latino/Hispanic culture), with particular attention to
their sense of emotional attachment to and understanding of each
culture. This set of studies was designed to assess the psychometric
properties of the PAS. In particular, cross-language equivalence,
internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity were
examined.
CROSS-LANGUAGE EQUIVALENCE
Back translation and decentering are widely used methods for
determining cross-language equivalence of a scale (Brislin, 1986). For
example, to create a Spanish version of an English-language measure,
one person translates from English to Spanish, and a different person
translates the Spanish version back into English. Discrepancies in the
translated versions are resolved through decentering, a process of
several iterations whereby the measure is pulled away from the
idiosyncrasies of the source language (i.e., the original
English-language version).
We share the concerns of Bontempo (1993) and Olmedo (1981) about the
validity of this accepted procedure. Even when original and
back-translated versions are quite similar, measurement equivalence
can still not be assumed or guaranteed for the two language versions
because concepts and wordings for scale items originally were produced
in only the source language (Bontempo, 1993; Olmedo, 1981). As an
alternative, we have developed a dual-focus approach to creating
bilingual measures, whereby the conceptual content of each item is
developed and then words are generated to express that concept in each
language (see Erkut, Alarc6n, Garcia Coil, Tropp, & Vazquez, in press,
for details of this procedure). In developing the PAS, our goal has
been to compose item wordings that express the relevant concepts with
equal clarity, affect, and level of usage in both languages.
CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
Convergent and discriminant validity were assessed by examining the
predicted relationships between respondents’ psychological
acculturation scores and traditional validation measures of
acculturation (e.g., place of birth, percentage of lifetime living on
the U.S. mainland) as well as culture-specific behaviors and
preferences that have been employed in other acculturation scales.
Paralleling the results from previous studies of acculturation (e.g.,
Matin et al., 1987; Szapocznik et al., 1978; Triandis, Kashima, Hui,
Lisansky, & Matin, 1982), we expected psychological acculturation
scores to be higher among respondents with greater exposure to the new
culture (i.e., Anglo-American culture) and greater exposure to English
during childhood. Similarly, we predicted that respondents’ language
preferences for completing the questionnaires would be associated with
their psychological acculturation scores, such that those who chose
the Spanish version would tend to have lower psychological
acculturation scores than those who chose the English version.
Finally, we also predicted that psychological acculturation scores
would be better predictors of individuals’ cultural behaviors and
preferences than would their degree of exposure to the new culture.
Three studies were conducted to document the psychometric properties
of the PAS.
Study 1
The first study was designed to examine internal consistency and
cross-language equivalence with respect to respondents’ scores on the
PAS.
Method
SAMPLE AND PROCEDURES
Respondents were recruited through community centers and neighborhood
contacts in several districts within the greater Boston area.
Respondents received $10 for their participation, which consisted of
completing a questionnaire.
Participants in this study were 36 self-identified bilingual Latinos
(10 men and 26 women). Respondents’ ages ranged from 13 to 58 years (M
= 28.6 years). Of the respondents, 13 were born on the mainland of the
United States and all others were born in Puerto Rico, Mexico, or
other Spanish-speaking countries in Central and South America.
Percentage of lifetime in the United States was calculated by dividing
the number of years living in the U.S. mainland by the age of the
respondent (an index previously used in research by Marin et al.
[1987] and Triandis et al. [1982]). Respondents’ percentage of
lifetime in the United States ranged from 4% to 100% (M = 75.2%).
All respondents responded to both Spanish and English versions of the
questionnaire. Spanish and English versions were presented to each
respondent in a random order.
MEASURE
Psychological Acculturation Scale. The PAS consists of 10 items
concerning individuals’ psychological responses to differing cultural
contexts (see Table 1). Item wordings for the PAS were generated
simultaneously in Spanish and English by a team of bilingual,
bicultural, and monocultural researchers. No items were included in
the scale which could not be directly and easily expressed with
parallel wording in both languages.
Subsequently, all potential items were discussed in focus groups of
Spanish/ English bilingual adolescents and adults drawn in the greater
Boston area. Items were continuously reworded, as suggested by
feedback from successive focus groups and discussions among members of
the research team. Altogether, six focus groups were conducted, at
which time both focus group participants and research team members
were satisfied with item wordings and felt no further revisions were
necessary.
A readability analysis was conducted for items on the English version
of the PAS, using the Microsoft Word 5.0 grammar program (no Spanish
grammar program was available). The Flesch estimate of reading ease
(74.7%) indicated that the English version of the PAS is fairly
readable, corresponding with a Grade 6 to 7 reading level.
Item responses for the PAS were scored on a 9-point Likert-type scale,
ranging from 1 (only Hispanic/Latino) to 9 (only Anglo/American), with
a bicultural orientation defining its midpoint. Thus, a bicultural
orientation (equally Hispanic/Latino and Anglo/American) could be
defined as a parallel sense of connection to both cultures (Cuellar et
al., 1980).
In addition, items regarding migration history, language use, and
other demographic variables were included in the questionnaires
distributed to each respondent.
Results
CROSS-LANGUAGE EQUIVALENCE
On a 9-point scale, mean PAS scores were 4.37 (SD = .86) and 4.42 (SD
-1.06) for the Spanish and English versions, respectively. Means and
standard deviations for the Spanish and English versions of scale
items are provided in Table 1. Mean item scores were nearly identical
for each language version, showing a high degree of consistency in
respondents’ scores across the Spanish and English versions.
The correlation between individuals’ total PAS scores from the Spanish
and English versions was also extremely high, r(35) = .94, suggesting
a high degree of cross-language measurement equivalence. Individual
Spanish/ English version item-to-item correlations ranged from .70 to
.92, with the exception of two: (a) “In what culture(s) do you feel
confident that you know how to act?” r(36) = .37; and (b) “In what
culture(s) do you know what is expected of a person in various
situations?” r(36) = .64.
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
Alpha coefficients of reliability for scores on the Spanish and
English versions of the PAS were .83 and .85, respectively. Item total
correlations ranged from .22 and .68 for scores on the Spanish version
and from .27 and .71 for the English version, indicating highly
similar patterns of item total correlations across individuals’
responses to the two versions.
Study 2
The results from the first study indicated that scores on each
language version of the PAS were internally consistent and that
individuals’ responses to the PAS were highly comparable across the
two language versions. Still, much research on Latinos has been
criticized for treating members of different Latino subgroups as part
of one homogeneous population (Marin & VanOss Marin, 1991). Therefore,
a second study was designed to examine psychometric properties of the
PAS within a more specific subgroup of Latino respondents. To date,
most acculturation measures have been validated using Mexican American
respondents. In this study, Puerto Rican respondents were used for two
reasons: (a) Puerto Ricans tend to be underrepresented in validation
studies of acculturation measures, and (b) Puerto Ricans are the
largest Latino subgroup in the northeast region of the United States.
Method
SAMPLE AND PROCEDURES
Respondents were recruited for participation in the same manner as in
Study 1. A total of 107 Puerto Ricans participated in this study,
including 39 males and 64 females (4 respondents did not state their
gender). Respondents’ ages ranged from 12 to 58 years (M = 27.9
years). Of the respondents, 85 were born in Puerto Rico and 21 were
born on the U.S. mainland. Respondents’ percentage of lifetime spent
in the United States ranged from 77% to 100% (M = 92%).
MEASURES
The measures used in Study 2 were equivalent to those employed in the
first study. However, in this study, respondents were asked to respond
only to one questionnaire in the language of their choice (i.e.,
either the Spanish version or the English version).
Cultural behaviors and preferences. Items pertaining to cultural
behaviors and p
scales and included in each version of the questionnaire for
validation purposes. Individual items concerning language use (both
reading and speaking), cultural foods, music, holiday celebrations,
and family celebrations were inspired by items on the Marin et al.
(1987) and Szapocznik et al. (1978) scales. Parallel items were
included to address actual cultural behaviors (e.g., How do you
celebrate family events?) and individuals’ preferences for cultural
behaviors (e.g., How do you prefer to celebrate family events?),
yielding a total of 12 items added to each questionnaire.
Complementing the response format for the PAS items, these items were
scored on a 9-point scale, ranging from 1 (only Spanish) to 9 (only
English).
Items pertaining to language reading and speaking were combined to
create composite measures of language use (behavior items) and
preferred language use (preference items); alpha coefficients of
reliability were .90 for scores on the language use measure and .80
for scores on the preferred language use measure. Scores on the
remaining behavior and preference items yielded low estimates of
internal consistency and were examined individually in data analysis.
Results
INTERNAL CONSISTENCY
Overall, the mean PAS score for this sample was 3.48 on the 9-point
scale (SD = 1.38). Of the respondents, 64 chose to complete the
Spanish version of the PAS and 42 chose the English version. Item
scores on both language versions of the PAS were shown to be
internally consistent, with alpha coefficients of .90 and .83 for the
Spanish and English versions, respectively. Item total correlations
from this sample ranged from between .55 and .81 for the Spanish
version of the PAS and from between .36 and .67 for the English
version.
Because scores from this sample yielded high levels of internal
consistency on both language versions of the PAS, responses to the
Spanish and English versions of the scale were pooled for further data
analysis.
FACTOR ANALYSIS
A principal components analysis yielded a single primary factor of
psychological acculturation, which accounted for 51% of the variance.
No additional factors were extracted beyond this factor because all
other factors’ eigenvalues were below 1.0. Structure coefficients on
this factor ranged from between .64 and .79 (see Table 2).
CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY
Migration history. Respondents born in Puerto Rico tended to have
lower PAS scores (M = 3.3) than did respondents born on the U.S.
mainland, M = 4.2, t(103) = -2.93,p * .01. Thus, individuals born in
Puerto Rico tended to be more Latino-oriented than bicultural.
Furthermore, psychological acculturation (as measured by the PAS) was
correlated positively with percentage of lifetime in the United
States, r(103) = .43, p * .01, such that greater time on the U.S.
mainland corresponded with a more Anglo/American orientation.
Language use. Respondents who chose to complete the questionnaire in
Spanish tended to have lower scores on the PAS (M = 3.1) than did
respondents who completed the questionnaire in English, M = 4.1,
t(104) = -4.22, p * .001. That is, respondents who chose the Spanish
version tended to be more Latino-oriented than were those who chose
the English version. Psychological acculturation also correlated
positively with use of English at home during the respondent’s
childhood, r(106) = .51, p * .01, indicating a greater Anglo/American
orientation with increased use of English in the home.
COMPARING MEASURES OF MIGRATION AND ACCULTURATION
Individuals’ migration histories traditionally have been used as
validation measures for acculturation scales. Although these measures
may be useful, it is also important to acknowledge a qualitative
difference between time spent in a culture and one’s sense of
belonging and attachment to that culture. Multiple regression analyses
were conducted to address this distinction using psychological
acculturation (i.e., respondents’ PAS scores) and percentage of
lifetime in the United States as predictors of the adapted cultural
behavior and preference items.
A separate correlational analysis indicated that the two predictor
variables bore a substantial positive correlation, r(103) = .43, p *
.01. Under such conditions, the standardized regression coefficients
that are obtained from standard regression analyses may be biased and
relatively unreliable, as compared to other indicators (Darlington,
1990). To promote the accurate interpretation of our findings,
semipartial correlations and structure coefficients instead will be
reported. Structure coefficients were computed by dividing the
correlation between each predictor variable and the criterion variable
by the multiple correlation (see Thompson & Borrello, 1985, for a more
detailed discussion of this procedure).
Results indicated that, together, psychological acculturation and
percentage of lifetime in the United States accounted for a
substantial portion of the variance in scores on most of the cultural
behavior and preference measures (R[sup 2] values ranging from. 14 to
.44). In particular, these variables were highly effective as
predictors for behaviors and preferences associated with language use,
although they were somewhat less effective as predictors for behaviors
and preferences associated with cultural foods (see Table 3).
Semipartial correlations and structure coefficients demonstrated high
levels of association between psychological acculturation (i.e.,
respondents’ PAS scores) and scores on all of the cultural behavior
and preference items (see Table 3). In contrast, semipartial
correlations and structure coefficients suggested that percentage of
lifetime in the United States is related fairly strongly to behaviors
and preferences associated with language use and holiday celebrations
yet has relatively weak relationships with respondents’ scores on the
other cultural behavior and preferences items (see Table 3). Thus, the
general pattern of results demonstrates that psychological
acculturation served as a stronger and more consistent correlate of
respondents’ cultural behaviors and preferences than did their
percentage of lifetime spent in the United States.
Study 3
Study 2 replicated findings of high internal consistency and validity
for respondents’ scores on the PAS with a large sample of Puerto Rican
respondents. A third study was conducted to gather further validity
evidence for PAS scores across two distinct age groups (adolescents
and adults) and with two methodological modifications. First, an
interview format was used rather than a self-administered
questionnaire to examine the robustness of the scale across modalities
of administration. Second, the response range was reduced to a 5-point
scale because most respondents from Study 2 used only a portion of the
response options from the 9-point scale.
Method
SAMPLES AND PROCEDURES
Puerto Rican adolescents and their parents were recruited through
door-to-door screening, media advertisements, and community networks
within the greater Boston area. Prospective participants who
identified themselves as Puerto Rican were contacted as part of a
larger study on Puerto Rican adolescent development. Respondents were
given $10 for their participation, which consisted of face-to-face
interviews in their homes. Respondents were interviewed in the
language of their choice (i.e., either Spanish or English) by trained
bilingual and bicultural interviewers. Informed consent was obtained
from respondents prior to the interviews.
Adolescent sample. A total of 247 Puerto Rican 13- and 14-year-old
adolescents participated in this study (118 males and 129 females). Of
the participants, 98 were born in Puerto Rico and 146 were born on the
U.S. mainland (3 were born in other places). Adolescents’ percentage
of lifetime in the United States ranged from less than 1% to 100% (M =
80%).
Parent sample. A total of 228 mothers of the adolescents also
participated in this study, ranging in age from 27 to 57 years (M = 39
years). Of these mothers, 201 were born in Puerto Rico and 21 were
born on the U.S. mainland (6 were born in other places). Parents’
percentage of lifetime in the United States ranged from 85% to 100% (M
= 92%).
MEASURES
For both adolescents and parents, interview protocols included the
same versions of the PAS and the items concerning migration history
and demographic factors, which were used in Studies 1 and 2. However,
we observed that 80% of the respondents from Study 2 did not use
Scores 8, 6, 4, and 2 on the 9-point scale and essentially worked with
a 5-point scale. Therefore, the original 9-point response scales were
collapsed to 5-point scales.
Cultural behaviors and preferences. The same versions of the cultural
behavior and preference items used in Studies 1 and 2 were included in
the interview protocols for this study. To match the format of the
other items, item responses were scored on Likert-type scales ranging
from 1 (only Hispanic/Latino) to 5 (only Anglo/American).
As in the previous studies, behavior and preference items pertaining
to language reading and speaking were combined to create composite
measures of language use (behavior items) and preferred language use
(preference items). Alpha coefficients were .87 and .86 for
adolescents’ and parents’ scores on the language use measure,
respectively. Alpha coefficients were .77 for both adolescents’ and
parents’ scores on the preferred language use measure.
In addition, items pertaining to cultural foods, music, holiday
celebrations, and family celebrations were combined to create
composite measures of cultural behaviors and cultural preferences.
Alpha coefficients of reliability were .72 for both adolescents’ and
parents’ scores on the cultural behaviors measure. Alpha coefficients
of reliability were .75 and .76 for adolescents’ and parents’ scores
on the cultural preferences measure, respectively.
Results
ADOLESCENT SAMPLE
Overall, the mean acculturation score for this sample was 1.57 on the
5-point scale (SD = .62). Scores on the PAS were shown to be
internally consistent, with an alpha coefficient of .91 and item total
correlations ranging from between .52 and .78. A principal components
analysis yielded a single primary factor of psychological
acculturation, which accounted for 55% of the variance. No additional
factors were extracted beyond this factor, considering that the
eigenvalues for all other factors were below 1.0. Structure
coefficients for items on this factor ranged from between .60 and .83
(see Table 2).
Migration history. Respondents born in Puerto Rico tended to have
lower PAS scores (M = 1.33) than did those born on the U.S. mainland,
M = 1.72, t(241) = 4.98, p * .001. Psychological acculturation also
was correlated positively with percentage of lifetime in the United
States, r(247) = .25, p * .01, indicating a stronger Anglo/American
orientation with more time on the U.S. mainland.
Language use. Respondents who chose the Spanish version of the
interview tended to have lower PAS scores (M = 1.52) than did those
who chose the English version, M = 1.99, t(243) = -3.75, p * .01.
Psychological acculturation also correlated positively with use of
English in the home during the respondents’ childhood, r(247) = .40, p
* .01, indicating a stronger Anglo/American orientation with increased
use of English in the home.
PARENT SAMPLE
The overall mean for mothers’ acculturation scores was 1.55 on the
5-point scale (SD = .61). Their scores on the PAS were shown to be
internally consistent, with an alpha coefficient of .91 and item total
correlations ranging from between .53 and .79. A principal components
analysis yielded a single primary factor of psychological
acculturation, which accounted for 56% of the variance. No additional
factors were extracted beyond this factor, and eigenvalues for all
other factors were less than 1.0. Structure coefficients for the items
on this factor ranged from between .61 and .84 (see Table 2).
Migration history. Paralleling the adolescent sample, respondents born
in Puerto Rico tended to have lower PAS scores (M = 1.46) than did
respondents born on the U.S. mainland, M = 2.40, t(219) = 7.53, p *
.001. Psychological acculturation also was correlated positively with
percentage of lifetime in the United States, r(221) = .45, p * .01,
indicating a stronger Anglo/American orientation with more time on the
U.S. mainland.
Language use. Respondents who chose the Spanish version of the
interview tended to have lower PAS scores (M = 1.50) than did those
who chose the English version, M = 2.01, t(224) = -4.00, p * .001.
Psychological acculturation also correlated positively with use of
English in the home during the respondent’s childhood, r(227) = .41, p
* .01, indicating an increased Anglo/American orientation with
increased use of English in the home.
COMPARING MEASURES OF MIGRATION AND ACCULTURATION
As in Study 2, analyses were conducted to address the distinction
between time spent in a given culture and one’s psychological
attachment to that culture. Multiple regression analyses were
performed using psychological acculturation (i.e., respondents’ PAS
scores) and percentage of lifetime in the United States as predictors
of the cultural behavior and preference measures.
Correlational analyses indicated that the two predictor variables were
correlated positively in the adolescent sample, r(246) = .25, p * .01,
and even more highly correlated in the parent sample, r(227) = .56, p
* .01. Semipartial correlations and structure coefficients, therefore,
will be reported to aid in the accurate interpretation of our findings
(see Table 4).
Adolescent sample. Overall, results from these analyses indicated that
psychological acculturation and percentage of lifetime in the Unite
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